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A MANUAL OF 

FARM GRASSES 



BY 

AKSrHlTCHCOCK 



P-"^ 



Systematic- Agrostologist, United States Department of Agriculture, 

Washington, D. C.; formerly Professor of Botany in the 

Kansas State Agricultural College 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

1921 




:h 



^,75 



^J 



Copyright, 1921 
By a. S, Hitchcock 



JAN 24 1921 



©CI.A605502 






PREFACE 

The forage grasses are of great interest to the farmer, ^ ^ 
and the grass crop is in the aggregate one of the most 
important grown upon the farm. The grasses and the 
clovers, including alfalfa, are the basis of the stock 
industry. The call for authentic information upon the 
forage grasses has been extended and insistent. In the 
present volume an attempt has been made to supply to 
the farmer, ranchman, and stockman, and also to the 
agriculturist and experiment station worker, a com- 
pendium of information on the grasses used for forage. 
The book is intended primarily to give information by 
which the cultivated grasses may be identified, and by 
which one may determine their range, adaptibility, and 
uses. Secondary to this is information on the culture of 
the grasses. 

To aid in the identification of the grasses the descrip- 
tions are supplemented by drawings from nature by Mrs. 
Mary Wright Gill, the well-known agrostological artist. 

In addition to the information on the forage grasses 
there has been added a brief account of grasses used for 
other purposes, such as lawns and ornamentals. 

A. S. Hitchcock 
1867 Park Road, 
Washington, D. C, 
October i, 1920 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

Pages 
Introduction 1-3 

CHAPTER H 

Statistics of the Grass Crop 4-9 

The value, acreage, and distribution of grass 
crops in the United States, based upon the 
figures of the Thirteenth Census. 

CHAPTER HI 

General Remarks on Forage Grasses 10-29 

Classification of Forage Plants 10-12 

Grasses, 10 — Legumes, 11 — Other forage 
plants, 12. 

Forage Crop Areas 12-15 

Cool Humid Region, 12 — ^Warm Humid Re- 
gion, 13 — Semiarid Region, 14 — ^Arid Re- 
gion, 15 — Region of winter rains, 15. 

Uses of Forage Plants 16-27 

Pastures, 16 — -Permanent pasture, 18 — 
Meadows, 22 — ^Wild hay, 22 — Grain hay, 
23 — ^Legume hay, 23 — Coarse hay or fodder, 
24 — Millet, 25 — Ordinary meadow hay, 26 — 
Soiling, 26 — -Silage, 27. 

V 



vi Contents 

Nomenclature of Grasses " 27-29 



CHAPTER IV 

Pages 
Culture of Grasses 30-43 

General Principles, 30 — Preparation of the 
soil, 30 — Sowing the seed, 31 — Care of pas- 
tures, 32 — ^Care of meadows, 34 — Making 
hay, 34 — Grass in rotation, 36 — Grass seed, 
37. 

CHAPTER V 

The Structure of Grasses 44-52 

Roots and rootstocks, 45 — Stem and leaves, 
46 — Flowers and seed, 48. 

CHAPTER VI 

The Three Leading Forage Grasses 53-76 

Timothy 53-57 

Timothy as a meadow grass, 55 — Descrip- 
tion, 57. 

Bluegrass 58-70 

Bluegrass for pasture, 59 — Bluegrass for 
lawns, 60 — Making a bluegrass lawn, 61 — 
Lawn weeds, 65 — Bluegrass seed, 66 — Blue- 
grass as a weed, 67 — Description, 67. 

Bermuda Grass 70-76 

Bermuda as a pasture grass, 71 — Bermuda 
for lawns, 72 — Methods of eradication, 73- — 
Description, 74. 



Contents vii 

CHAPTER VII 

, Pages 

Other Important Forage Grasses 77-91 

Redtop, 77 — Orchard grass, 80 — Meadow 
fescue, 83 — Johnson grass, 85 — Brome grass, 
89. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Grasses of Minor Importance 92-118 

Rhode Island bent and carpet bent, 92 — 
Rye grasses, 95 — ^Tall oat grass, 99 — Canada 
bluegrass, 100 — Sweet vernal grass, 102 — 
Velvet grass, 103 — ^St. Augustine grass, 104 
— Carpet grass, 105 — ^Rescue grass, 107 — 
Guinea grass, 107 — Para grass, 107 — The 
fescue grasses, 109 — Rhodes grass, in— 
Natal grass, 112 — ^Slender wheat grass, 113 
— A few other grasses, 114. 

CHAPTER IX 

x^NNUAL Forage Crops . . 1 19-134 

Common millet, 119 — Proso millet, 122 — 
Japanese barnyard millet, 124 — Pearl millet, 
126 — The sorghums, 126 — Sudan grass, 130 
— Teosinte, 131 — Corn, 132 — The small 
grains, 133 — Chess or cheat, 133. 

CHAPTER X 

Native Forage Grasses 135-151 

Plains, 136 — Valleys, 139 — Deserts, 142 — 
Humid forests, 144 — Mountain meadows, 



viii Contents 

Pages 
145 — Wild hay, 146 — Cultivated native 

grasses 147. 

CHAPTER XI 

Other Economic Grasses 151-158 

Lawn grasses, 151 — Ornamentals, 153 — 
Sand binders, 156 — Fiber grasses, 157^ 
Sugar-producing grasses, 157. 

CHAPTER Xn 

Weedy Grasses 159-167 

Eradication of quack grass, 160 — Annual 
weeds, 162 — Weeds upon the range, 166. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
F'iG. Pages 

1. Magnifying glass for examining seeds 39 

2 . Seeds of some common grasses 40 

3. Spikelet of wheat 49 

4. Timothy . 57 

5. Kentucky Bluegrass 68 

6. Bermuda Grass '. 74 

7. Redtop 78 

8. Orchard Grass 82 

9. Meadow Fescue 84 

10. Johnson Grass 88 

1 1 . Brome Grass 90 

12. Rhode Island Bent 94 

13. Italian Rye Grass 97 

14. Perennial Rye Grass 98 

15. Tall Oat Grass 100 

16. Canada Bluegrass loi 

17. Sweet Vernal Grass 102 

18. Velvet Grass 103 

19. St. Augustine Grass 104 

20. Carpet Grass 106 

21. Rescue Grass 108 

22. Sheep's Fescue no 

23. Rhodes Grass 112 

24. Natal Grass 113 

25. Paspalum dilatatum 115 

26. German millet 121 



IX 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Pages 

27. Hungarian Grass 122 

28. Proso Millet 123 

29. Japanese Barnyard Millet 125 

30. Pearl Millet 126 

31. Buffalo Grass 136 

32. Grama Grass 137 

33. Curly Mesquite 138 

34. Big Bluestem 141 

35. Quack Grass 160 

36. Crab grass 163 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

In all parts of the United States, forage plants are an 
important element in all kinds of farming that involve 
live stock. Even on farms devoted to special crops such 
as vegetables or fruits the use of farm animals may bring 
the question of forage into the foreground. For these 
reasons nearly all farmers and stockmen are interested 
in grasses. In those fegions that have been long settled, 
farm practice has included the use of certain grasses, the 
kind depending upon the region. The farmer is familiar 
with these grasses and understands their use and may 
need no further information upon these. It often hap- 
pens, however, that the farmer wishes to try other kinds 
of grasses of which he has heard but with which he is not 
familiar. He may have read about them in farm journals 
or he may have seen them advertised in seed catalogues. 
Interested dealers or growers may, in their enthusiasm 
or greed, honestly or dishonestly recommend them in 
flamboyant language or with exaggerated praise. 

It is hoped that the present work will give information 
that will enable the farmer to form a correct judgement 
as to the value of particular kinds of grasses for his con- 
ditions. Some kinds of grass are well suited to one set 
of conditions but entirely unsuited to others and no grass 
is suited to all the various conditions found throughout 



2 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

the country. The reader who wishes to try new or un- 
familiar kinds of grass should study the chapter on crop 
areas and then read what is said about this grass under 
the chapter or paragraph devoted to it. All kinds of 
grasses known to have any value anywhere in the United 
States, are here described and also several kinds that are 
practically valueless anywhere, but which have been re- 
ferred to in agricultural works or have been offered for 
sale by seedsmen. 

Sometimes an old grass is advertised under a new name 
and thus exploited. Many are familiar with the frequent 
thrusting into notoriety of new kinds of wheat such as 
mummy wheat, Alaska wheat, and Egyptian wheat, 
with marvelous tales of high yield, but which upon ex- 
amination by experts prove to be old varieties which have 
no especially good qualities to recommend them. Billion 
dollar grass was exploited at one time in this way. It is 
well to be on guard against deception or honest but 
unwarranted enthusiasm. 

The U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State 
Experiment Stations have sought out grasses from all 
over the world and carefully tested them, and the possi- 
bilities of all kinds are pretty well known. The prob- 
ability of some new kind coming suddenly into use is very 
slight. Hence, exploitation of a supposedly new kind of 
grass by interested persons should be looked upon with 
suspicion and the claims made for it subjected to the 
keenest scrutiny. 

The farmer should endeavor to grow the grass best 
suited to his conditions. Even on the same farm the 
conditions may vary so much that prie kind of grass may 



INTRODUCTION 3 

succeed in one part but fail in another part, while in this 
second place another sort may succeed. Every grass has 
its good points and its bad points. It should be the 
endeavor of the farmer to learn these points and it is 
hoped that this book may aid him in the attempt. 



CHAPTER II 
STATISTICS OF THE GRASS CROP 

The value of the grass crop of the United States is 
much greater than is generally supposed. A large pro- 
portion is fed upon the farm and thus does not directly 
swell the cash income. The figures given below are all 
taken from the report of the thirteenth census. The 
total value of all farm crops produced in the United 
States in 1909 was $5,487,161,000. Of this amount the 
cereals take the lead with a total value of $2,665,539,714. 
The values of the cotton crop and of the hay and forage 
crop are about equal, being respectively $824,696,287 
and $824,004,887, and hence divide honors for second and 
third place. The other crops are much less. It must be 
remembered that the statistics do not include the value 

Table I 

Production (Tons) of Hay and Forage of the Twenty 
Leading States in 1909 

1. Iowa 7,823,181 II. Pennsylvania 3,677,307 

2. New York 7,055,429 12. South Dakota. . . .3,651,024 

3. Minnesota 6,036,747 13. Michigan 3,632,939 

4. Kansas 5,936,997 14. North Dakota. . . .3,010,401 

5. Nebraska 5,776,475 15. Indiana 2,880,104 

6. Wisconsin 5,002,644 16. Colorado 2,241,566 

7- Ohio 4,521,409 17. Montana 1,692,656 

8. Illinois 4,354,466 18. Oregon 1,587,796 

9. California 4,327,130 19. Idaho 1,584,365 

JO, Missouri 4,091,342 20. Vermont 1,502,730 



STATISTICS OF THE GEASS CROP 5 

of pasture and range which, if added, would place the 
value of forage far above that of cotton. The total acre- 
age of grassland as reported by the census was 72,280,776 
and the total production 97,454,000 tons, the average 
yield thus being 1.35 tons per acre. The preceding table 
shows the production of hay and forage for the 20 
leading states. 

Six other states had a production exceeding 1,000,000 
tons. 

The value of the hay and forage crop varies according 
to the kind, consequently in the table showing this the 
sequence of states is somewhat altered. 

Table II 

Value in Dollars of Hay and Forage of the Twenty 
Leading States in 1909 

1. New York $77,360,645 11. Nebraska $31,729,691 

2. Iowa 59,360,225 12. Minnesota 26,724,801 

3. Pennsylvania. . . 45,623,573 13. Indiana 24,883,461 

4. Ohio 42,357,364 14. Colorado 17,282,276 

5. California 42,187,215 15. Washington. . . . 17,147,648 

6. Wisconsin 40,866,396 16. Vermont 16,335,530 

7. Illinois 40,560,220 17. South Dakota . . 15,243,664 

8. Michigan 36,040,087 18. Oregon 151225,957 

9. Missouri 33,845,094 19. Maine 15,115,821 

10. Kansas 32,033,954 20. Texas 12,824,433 

Seven other states produced a crop valued at more 
than $10,000,000. 

The kind of forage produced is of great interest but the 
Census Report does not classify very closely, in this 
respect. 

Table III gives the results so far as the classification 
extends. 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Table III 

Acreage, Production, and Value of Hay and Forage 
FOR 1901 BY Classes 





Acres 


Production 
(Tons) 


Value (Dollars;) 


Timothy alone 

Timothy and Clover mixed . 
Clover alone 


14,686,393 

19.542.382 

2,443,263 

4,707,146 

1,117,769 

4,218,957 

17,186,522 

4.324,878 

4,034,432 


17,985,420 

24,748,555 

3,158,324 

11,859,881 

1,546,533 

4,166,772 

18,383,574 
5.367.292 
9,982,305 


$188,082,895 

257,280,330 

29,^^4,356 


Alfalfa 


93,103,998 


Millet or Hungarian grass . . 
Other tame or cultivated 

grasses 

Wild, salt, or prairie grasses. 
Grains cut green 


11,145,226 

44,408,775 
91,026,169 
61,686,131 


Coarse forage 


46,753,262 





The taking of a census is an enormous task. All 
farmers are aware of the number and variety of questions 
asked by the enumerators. At each census a greater 
variety of statistics is gathered than at the preceding, 
and we may hope that in future censuses a still further 
classification of the forage crops may be possible. The 
instructions issued to the census clerks contain the fol- 
lowing in regard to hay and forage crops: 

(c) Tabulate as "clover alone" all crops reported after that 
designation, as well as all reported as "alsike," "red clover," 
"crimson clover;" also other clovers unmixed with other 
grasses. The same crops reported as mixed with timothy or 
herd's grass should be tabulated as "timothy and clover 
mi.xed." When reported as mixed with grasses other than 
timothy or herd's-grass, they should be tabulated as "other 
tame or cultivated grasses." 

(&) Tabulate as "other tame or cultivated grasses" all 
crops reported after that designation, as well as all reported 
as "rcdtof)," "June-grass," "orchard-grass," "blue-grass," 
and "Johnson-grass;" also all combinations of these grasses 
with any of the clover crops mentioned in paragraph a, 
preceding, or with timothy. 



STATISTICS OF THE GRASS CROP 7 

(c) Tabulate as "wild, salt, or prairie grasses" all crops 
reported after that designation, as well as all reported as 
"marsh-grass," "swamp-grass," "slough-grass," "bluestem," 
"daisies," and "butter-cups." 

(d) Tabulate as "grains cut green" all crops reported after 
that designation without specific names, or with the name 
"oats," "wheat," "barley," "rye," "peas," "cowpeas," 
"soybeans," " velvetbeans," or "vetches." Keep a memo- 
randum of the names of all crops reported with specific names 
and tabulated as "grains cut green." 

(e) Tabulate as "coarse forage" all crops reported after 
that designation without specific names, or with the name 
"corn," "sweet corn," "cane," "sorghum," "Kafir corn," 
"Jerusalem corn," "milo maize," or kindred crops. 

It will be seen from this that the classification is only 
approximate. The following tables show the relative 
importance of the different kinds of forage in the different 
regions of the United States. 

Table IV 

The Production (Tons) of Hay and Forage for 1909, by the 
Ten Leading States, of Each Kind of Forage 

Timothy 

1. Ohio 2,348,660 6. Pennsylvania 1,200,073 

2. Iowa 1,952,956 7. New York 1,159,083 

3. Illinois 1,947,572 8. Wisconsin 1,110,446 

4. Indiana 1,442,218 9. Minnesota 1,101,510 

5. Missouri 1,334,556 10. Michigan 929,165 

Timothy and clover mixed 

1. Iowa 3,732,186 6. Missouri 1,630,211 

2. New York 3,215,021 7. Minnesota 1,433,075 

3. Wisconsin 2,477,311 8. Ohio 1,346,347 

4. Michigan 1,991,618 9. Illinois 1,123,254 

5. Pennsylvania 1,830,852 10. Vermont 628,098 



3 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Clover alone 

1. Illinois 539.790 6. Tennessee 201,926 

2. Indiana 314,818 7. Iowa 195.579 

3. Missouri 309,209 8. Wisconsin 193,786 

4. Ohio 239,492 9. New York 114,864 

5. Michigan 216,862 10. Minnesota 106,334 

Alfalfa . 

1. Kansas 1,998,689 6. Utah 791,355 

2. California 1.639,707 7. Montana 599,747 

3. Nebraska 1,522,136 8. Wyoming 397,669 

4. Colorado 1,265,915 9. Oregon 375,445 

5. Idaho 964,529 10. Washington 357,595 

Millet or Hungarian grass 

1. Kansas 290,661 6. Tennessee 76,311 

2. Nebraska 160,684 7- Oklahoma 75,591 

3. North Dakota .... 149,429 8. South Dakota .... 65,844 

4. Missouri 141,626 9. Iowa 54,346 

5. Texas 95.352 10. Minnesota 50,383 

Other tame or cultivated grasses 

1. New York 412,479 6. Connecticut 159,365 

2. Maine 258,789 7. Massachusetts. . . . 150,723 

3. Tennessee 218,482 8. Kentucky 139,382 

4. Minnesota 188,371 9. Texas 138,758 

5. Vermont 160,014 10. New Hampshire . . 131,621 

Wild, salt, or prairie grasses 

1. Nebraska 3,097,822 6. Iowa 1,178,000 

2. South Dakota. . . .2,798,263 7. Oklahoma 607,120 

3. Minnesota 2,714,121 8. Montana 589,860 

4. North Dakota . . . .2,372,618 9. Wisconsin 497,622 

5. Kansas 1,737,632 10. Colorado 368,408 

Grains cut green 

1. California 2,019,526 6. South Carolina . . . 133,996 

2. Oregon 509,030 7. Georgia . 128,929 

3. Washington 499.955 8. Louisiana 127,126 

4. Idaho 140,098 9. North Carolina . . . 118,687 

5. Tennessee 136,674 10. Illinois 99,828 



STATISTICS OF THE GRASS CROP 9 

Coarse forage 

1. New York 1,876,795 6. Vermont 452,461 

2. Kansas 1,263,231 7. Ohio 443,512 

3. Texas 688,274 8. Pennsylvania 422,925 

4. Wisconsin 571,441 9. Minnesota 401,614 

5- Iowa 510,184 10. Michigan 379,279 

From Table IV it is seen that timothy and clover are 
the most important cultivated forage crops. These are 
grown mainly in the "humid region," usually known as 
the timothy region. Next in importance is the wild hay 
crop which comes mostly from the eastern portion of the 
Great Plains, the chief constituent being prairie hay. 

The alfalfa crop comes from the western states where 
irrigation is practiced, though it is worthy of note that in 
the leading state, Kansas, much of the crop is grown 
without irrigation. Millet comes mostly from the east- 
ern belt of the Great Plains. Under the head of "other 
tame or cultivated grasses," the most important ele- 
ments are red top, grown in the northeastern states, 
Johnson grass, in Texas and some other southern states, 
and orchard grass, in Tennessee and Kentucky. Under 
the head of "grains cut green," are two important ele- 
ments, grain hay on the Pacific Coast, and the cowpea 
in the Southern States. The Canada field pea is an im- 
portant crop along our northern border. Under "coarse 
forage" are included corn and sorghum cut for forage. 
The tables should be studied in connection with the 
chapter on Forage Crop Areas. 



CHAPTER III 
GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 

In order to understand the relation between the differ- 
ent kinds of grasses grown for forage and the conditions 
suited to their culture it is necessary to keep in mind the 
uses to which the grass crop is put and the conditions 
which must be met by the crop in different parts of the 
United States. The classification of the forage crops 
will first be set forth and then the classification ~of the 
crop areas. 

CLASSIFICATION OF FORAGE PLANTS 

Forage plants are those whose foliage or green portions 
furnish food for stock. The plants cultivated for forage 
belong, for the most part, to two natural groups or 
families, the grasses (Gramineae) and the legumes 
(Leguminosae). A few forage plants belong to other 
groups. 

Grasses 

The grass family comprises a large and important 
group of plants, found growing in all parts of the world 
where any vegetation is possible, from sea level to the 
limits of perpetual snow in the highest mountains, from 
the tropics to the north and south polar regions, in the 
humid rain-forest, the vast steppes and arid plains, and 
the sandy wastes and rocky cliffs of all altitudes and 
latitudes. Grasses are the predominating vegetation on 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES II 

all open land known under the general name of plains, 
an example of which is the area called the Great Plains 
of North America. Other areas of this kind are the 
steppes of Russia, and the llanos and pampas of South 
America. Grazing animals feed upon many kinds of 
plants but of these the grasses are by far the most 
important. 

The grasses are distinguished by having narrow leaves 
arranged in two rows or ranks, by having small greenish 
flowers usually in heads or panicles, and by the fruit or 
seed which is a grain like the kernel of wheat or seed 'of 
timothy. To the grass family belong the common 
meadow and pasture grasses, such as timothy, redtop, 
and bluegrass, the cereals, such as wheat and rice, and 
also certain larger plants such as, corn, sorghum, and 
sugar cane. The sedges and rushes often have grass-like 
leaves but are distinguished from the grass family by the 
structure of the flowers and fruit. The sedges that most 
closely resemble grasses in general appearance can be 
distinguished by their 3-sided stems and 3-ranked leaves. 
In general the sedges inhabit marshes and other wet 
places and are of little value as forage. 

Legumes 

The legumes are plants bearing pods and peculiarly 
shaped flowers like those of the pea. They usually have 
compound leaves. Well known plants of the legume 
family are the clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans, and vetches. 
The especial value of the legumes lies in the fact that the 
forage is highly nutritious, being rich in the nitrogenous 
compounds called proteids. Not only are they valuable 



12 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

as forage, but they enrich the land upon which they are 
grown. By means of bacteria-Hke organisms inhabiting 
the nodules upon the roots, leguminous plants are able to 
gather nitrogen from the air. Part of this accumulated 
nitrogen is stored in the foliage but a part remains in the 
roots. This portion is added to the soil when the roots 
decay, and becomes available for the following crop. 
Thus it is that clover benefits the wheat that is grown 
later on the same soil. 

Other Forage Plants 
Aside from the two great groups already mentioned, 
there are few plants cultivated for forage. The most 
important are those of the mustard family of which the 
rape and turnip are examples. Another group occa- 
sionally cultivated are the salt bushes. 

FORAGE CROP AREAS 
The forage crop areas of the United States are classi- 
fied on the basis of temperature and rainfall. All forage 
plants are limited to rather definite conditions of heat 
and moisture and a knowledge of the adaptability of the 
different species is necessary in choosing plants for differ- 
ent regions. The chief areas are the Cool Humid 
Region, the Warm Humid Region, the Semiarid Region, 
the Arid Region, and the Region of Winter Rains. These 
areas overlap in places and become indefinite in others 
but in the main they are fairly distinct. 

Cool Humid Region 
This area includes the northeastern states, extending 
south to the southern border of Virginia and Kentucky 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 13 

and further in the mountains, and west to eastern Kansas 
and eastern Nebraska. It is the region in which timothy 
can be successfully grown and hence is usually known as 
the Timothy Region. Other humid regions occur on the 
Pacific Slope from Puget Sound to northern California 
and in the mountain valleys of our western states. In the 
timothy region thrive the common meadow and pasture 
grasses, such as orchard grass, red top and bluegrass, and 
the well-known legumes, red and white clover. 

Warm Humid Region 

This area extends from the Gulf of Mexico northward 
to the Cool Humid Region and west to eastern Texas. 
As the Cool Humid Region is known as the Timothy 
Region, so the Warm Humid Region is known as the 
Bermuda Grass Region and corresponds approximately 
with the Cotton Belt. Important forage plants of this 
area are Bermuda grass and Japan clover for pasture, 
and the cowpea and velvet bean for hay and soiling. 
Johnson grass here reaches its greatest development. 

Semiarid Region 

This lies west of the two regions already mentioned 
and includes all those portions of the Great Plains where 
crops can be grown without irrigation. Small areas, 
classed as semiarid, are scattered throughout the western 
half of the United States. They may lie in isolated 
valleys or in spots or belts at the base of mountains be- 
tween the humid region above and the arid region below. 
In the moister portions of the semiarid region many farm 
crops, characteristic of the humid region, can be grown, 



14 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

such as corn, small grains, and cotton. This is especially 
true of certain varieties of these that have been developed 
to withstand the more severe conditions. Within recent 
years, the area of the semiarid region has been extended 
at the expense of the arid region. Land which was 
thought to be too dry for the cultivation of crops without 
irrigation, is now used for that purpose without other 
water than that supplied by the normal rainfall. To 
agriculture under these conditions has been applied the 
term dry farming. Dry farming has been made possible 
chiefly because of development along two lines. First, 
varieties of crops have been produced that are able to 
withstand a greater degree of drouth than those previ- 
ously grown in the humid region, or, kinds of crops have 
been introduced from the semiarid regions of other 
countries. Secondly, methods of culture have been 
developed by which the soil moisture can be conserved 
and utilized to a greater degree than heretofore. 

Among farm crops especially grown in the semiarid 
region may be mentioned durum or macaroni wheat, and 
emmer. Millet is a favorite forage crop in the eastern 
and northern portion of the area. Certain kinds of 
sorghum are commonly grown, especially Kafir, milo, 
Sudan grass, and a few varieties of sorgo, often here 
called "cane." Brome grass is a standard forage grass 
from Nebraska to Minnesota and Montana. Orchard 
grass and meadow fescue can be utilized further west than 
timothy can be successfully grown but are of no great 
importance in the region as a whole. The standard 
leguminous forage crop is alfalfa. Soy beans have 
attained some prominence in Kansas and adjacent 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 1 5 

regions. In the southern portion of the Great Plains, 
Johnson grass is an important factor in much of the 
.region that is essentially semiarid. 

Arid Region 

This includes all that portion of the United States 
that is too dry for the growing of crops without irrigation. 
From the agronomic standpoint, it includes the arable 
land of this region to which irrigation water is supplied. 
Under irrigation, practically all kinds of crops can be 
grown, the regional distribution being limited or modi- 
fied by temperature. The most important forage crop 
of the irrigated region is alfalfa. Timothy is grown in 
the arid region of Washington and some other forage 
crops are occasionally cultivated in limited quantities. 

Region of Winter Rains 

This region lies on the Pacific Slope including the 
foothills of California west of the Sierras and extending 
north to Washington and Western Idaho. It lies east of 
the humid region already mentioned, which extends from 
northwestern California to Puget Sound, and includes 
the Palouse region of eastern Washington. As the rains 
come in the winter and the winter temperature is com- 
paratively high, this season is utilized for the growing of 
crops, though the summer may be very dry. The most 
important crop of this region is small grain. Large 
quantities of grain are grown for forage, the product being 
called grain hay. This grain hay is, except alfalfa, 
almost the only hay on the market of much of thig 
region. 



1 6 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

USES OF FORAGE PLANTS 

According to the manner in which the forage is used, 
forage plants may be divided into four groups. Pasture 
plants, when grazed; Meadow plants, when the forage is 
dried, that is, converted into hay; Soiling plants, when 
the forage is cut and fed green; Silage plants, when the 
forage is preserved in silos. 

Pastures 

In the broadest sense, a pasture is any area furnishing 
forage by grazing. Such are both the open range of our 
western states and fields of grain that furnish temporary 
grazing. In the usual sense a pasture is a fenced area of 
grassland intended primarily for grazing. As the present 
volume is concerned chiefly with cultivated forage crops, 
the subject of ranges and range grasses will not be pur- 
sued further here, but will be referred to briefly in 
Chapter X. 

Pasture may be temporary or permanent. Temporary 
pasture can again be subdivided into two classes. The 
first class includes cases where the grazing is incidental, 
the crop being produced primarily for another purpose. 
Under this head come alfalfa fields grown for hay, but 
grazed at certain seasons; or winter wheat grown for 
the grain, but pastured during the fall or winter. 
Meadows are sometimes pastured at times, where such 
pasturage does not materially interfere with the crop of 
hay. Temporary pasture of this sort may be called 
incidental pasture. 

The second and most important kind of temporary 
pasture is that produced from annual plants primarily 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES I J 

sown for the purpose. The grains, corn, sorghum, Japan 
clover, crimson clover, soy (soja) beans, cowpeas, velvet 
beans, Canada field peas, vetches, rape, turnips, and 
some other annuals are used for temporary or annual 
pasture. Perennial grasses are also used for pasture 
during a single season, but detailed discussion will be 
deferred and taken up under the permanent pasture 
plants. The use of perennials for pasture during a single 
season depends upon the balance of cost of production 
and the value of the product. Under the modern system 
of intensive crop production in connection with dairying 
and other forms of animal industry, it may be an ad- 
vantage to grow a perennial grass like timothy for the 
pasture crop of the first year. The yield may be larger 
the first year than in succeeding years. The larger yield 
and the desirability of a rotation of crops may determine 
the use of perennials for temporary pasture. Italian and 
English ryegrasses, being quick-growing species, are used 
for winter pasture in the South. 

The annual plants most commonly used primarily for 
pasture are rye among the grasses, and rape and turnips 
among the cruciferous plants (mustard family). Japan 
clover is a common pasture plant in the south, but though 
an annual, is usually treated as a perennial, that is, it is 
not resown each year but reseeds itself spontaneously. 
The cowpea and velvet bean, annual legumes much 
grown in the Middle and Southern States for green feed, 
cover crops, and hay, are to an increasing extent, also 
utilized for gr^-^ing. 

An important drawback to the use of annual plants for 
past.ure is th§ large percf jtitage of waste due to trampling. 



1 8 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

This loss may be greatly reduced by allowing the stock 
to graze upon a limited area each day. The fields may 
be of such a size in relation to the number of animals that 
practically the entire crop will be grazed oflF in a few days 
or before the trampled portion is killed or too greatly 
injured. Another method much used, especially for the 
smaller animals, hogs, sheep and poultry, is the confine- 
ment within movable pens or enclosures that are shifted 
from time to time within the field. 

Under the system of farming commonly in vogue in the 
United States during the past, temporary pasture has 
been an incident. It has been for the purpose of utilizing 
a field that for the moment was lying idle, or it has been 
to meet an exigency such as the unexpected failure of the 
usual pasture crop, or to tide over some other em.ergency. 
In the modern system of agriculture, annual pasture 
plants are coming to have a definite place of importance. 
The yield is larger than that of perennial plants and 
annual plants are better adapted to systems of quick rota- 
tion. On the other hand the cost of production is 
greater for a series of years. 

Permanent Pasture 

The term pasture as commonly used refers to the herb- 
age produced by perennial plants through a series of 
years. The advantages of permanent over temporary 
pasture has been mentioned under the discussion of the 
latter. Under favorable conditions there is a grazing 
crop each year without cost other than the original prep- 
aration and seeding, and small additional annual cost of 
up-kecp, such as the repair of fences and, sometimes, the 
mowing of weeds, or the application of fertilizer. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 1 9 

The great pasture grass of the humid region is Ken- 
tucky bluegrass or June grass as it is called in the more 
northern states. Under conditions favorable for its 
growth no other grass can successfully compete with this 
for pasture. In general it thrives throughout the humid 
region in fertile soil that is not too wet or that is not 
acid (see Bluegrass, page 58). Bluegrass finds the most 
favorable conditions for its growth on the limestone soils 
of the Ohio and the upper Mississippi'Valleys, especially 
in the famous bluegrass region of Kentucky. By means 
of its numerous underground creeping stems, it forms a 
firm sod which tends to occupy the soil completely and 
thus exclude less desirable plants. The basal foliage 
which furnishes most of the forage, is proportionately 
abundant compared with the less succulent flowering 
stems. It starts its growth early in the spring and con- 
tinues until late in the fall. The seed is easy to gather, 
and, if properly handled, should be of good quality and 
of reasonable price. 

In the irrigated regions of the West, bluegrass may 
become a troublesome weed in alfalfa fields. Its agres- 
sive rootstocks enable it to supplant alfalfa, when, from 
any cause, the latter becomes weakened. As the blue- 
grass has much less value than alfalfa as a hay, its 
presence is looked upon with much disfavor. 

Throughout the uplands of the Southern States — the 
warm humid region — the most important pasture grass 
is Bermuda. FrOm Virginia to Florida and west to east- 
ern Texas, except in the cooler mountain regions, Ber- 
muda grass surpasses all other plants for pasture. It is 
nutritious and is relished by stock, and it withstands 



20 A MANUAL OF FRAM GRASSES 

trampling as well as the dry hot summers. Although 
especially adapted to the drier uplands, Bermuda thrives 
in the valley lands and when grown here tends to become 
rank and is available for hay. These richer lands are, 
however, generally utilized for more valuable crops. The 
northern extension of this grass is limited by the cold 
winters. 

Bermuda grass is preeminently a sun-loving or open 
ground grass. It languishes in the shade and is easily 
choked out by vigorous, shade-producing crops. It is 
this character that gives to this grass its value for the dry 
open uplands of the Cotton Belt. In the rich low lands 
of the Gulf Coast, it is crowded out in competition with 
two other grasses, carpet grass and St. Augustine grass. 
These grasses thrive especially on mucky soil. On sandy 
soil, even in the low lands, Bermuda usually holds its 
own. 

Another plant, a legume, is adapted to the pasture 
lands under the same conditions that are favorable to 
Bermuda. This is Japan clover, a low annual, intro- 
duced from the Orient but now widely distributed in the 
warmer parts of America. 

Various other plants are used to a limited extent in the 
South for pasture. Bluegrass thrives in the mountainous 
portions. Alfalfa is grown on the black prairie soils of 
Alabama and eastern Texas, but mostly for hay. John- 
son grass is used for pasture in those areas where it has 
obtained a foothold, but is not so well adapted for this as 
for hay. 

Valuable as is Bermuda for pasture, it becomes a 
troublesome weed in cultivated fields. There it grows 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 21 

much coarser and is known as wire grass. Because of its 
bad habits in fields of cotton and corn, Bermuda has 
received an unsavory reputation and its real value as a 
pasture plant is not always recognized or conceded. 
Like some other aggressive grasses, it is a valuable plant 
in its place. 

In the semiarid region there are no characteristic 
pasture plants except brome grass, which is adapted only 
to the northern portion. Much of the permanent pasture 
of the Great Plains region is the native grassland. 
Much grazing is also obtained from alfalfa, grain, and 
sorghum. In the southern portion, Johnson grass attains 
importance. In the eastern part of the semiarid belt 
where the conditions are not too severe, orchard grass and 
meadow fescue are utilized. 

In the northern part of the Great Plains, from Ne- 
braska to Minnesota and Montana brome grass has been 
grown successfully. It is the only cultivated grass that 
can here withstand the conditions of drouth too severe 
for bluegrass, timothy, and clover. South of the region 
mentioned, the summer heat is too great for brome 
grass. 

In the arid regions, the pastures are irrigated. The 
plants used under irrigation are alfalfa, especially in the 
more southern regions ; various grasses of the cool humid 
region, especially bluegrass and timothy, these more 
particularly to the northward; and native grasses. Irri- 
gated native pasture is likely to deteriorate if over- 
irrigated, because of the intrusion of weedy species such 
as wire grass (a species of rush) and foxtail or wild barley 
grass. 



22 a manual of farm grasses 

Meadows 

A meadow, from the agricultural standpoint, is an 
area producing a growth of forage which is cut for hay. 
In this broad sense the term includes wild prairie grass, 
fresh or salt marsh grass, alfalfa fields, grain, sorghum, 
cowpea, or any other plant that is cut for hay. In the 
usual and more restricted sense, a meadow is an area of 
perennial or permanent grassland used for the production 
of hay. 

Wild Hay 

Immense quantities of hay have been produced from 
native grassland. Depending upon the source wild hay 
may be divided into three kinds (see page 146). The 
first and most important is prairie hay, derived from the 
native grasses of uplands as distinguished from marshes. 
As such land is capable of being tilled, the area devoted 
to hay is constantly decreasing, other and more valuable 
crops being grown instead. Prairie hay from the eastern 
portion of the Great Plains and the area lying just east 
of this, is nutritious and commands a good price in the 
market. It consists largely of bluestem and similar tall 
prairie grasses. 

The second kind of wild hay is derived from fresh water 
marshes. Marsh meadows of this kind are scattered 
throughout the country. They attain great commercial 
importance in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley, 
notably in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. 
These marshes are too wet for tillage during much of the 
season but become sufficiently dry during harvest to 
allow the cutting of the hay. In some localities broad 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 23 

shoes are placed upon the horses' feet to prevent them 
from sinking into the soft soil during the mowing. The 
most important grasses of these marshes are a kind of 
bluejoint (different from the bluestem of the prairies), 
and reed canary grass. 

The third kind of wild hay is derived from salt marshes. 
Vast areas of salt marsh are found along the seacoast of 
the United States, especially that of the North Atlantic. 
The hay derived from salt marsh is usually of poor 
quality for forage but is utilized extensively for packing 
and stable litter. 

Grain Hay 

The small grains are well adapted to the production of 
hay and are used for this purpose whenever the value of 
the hay exceeds the value of the grain or when conditions 
justify the sacrifice of the grain. From the commercial 
standpoint, grain hay attains prime importance only on 
the Pacific Coast and portions of the area lying to the 
eastward. The lack of other sources of grass hay in this 
region has led to the utilization of grain. Besides the 
hay that is produced from wheat, barley, and oats, a not 
inconsiderable amount is derived from volunteer crops of 
wild oats. 

Legume Hay 

Although this volume is concerned primarily with the 
grasses, a few words will not be out of place regarding 
hay derived from leguminous plants. The most im- 
portant hay plant of the west is alfalfa. And its im- 
portance is on the increase in the eastern United States. 
Next in importance of the legumes in the hay market is 



24 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

red clover. This plant is grown throughout the cool 
humid region and furnishes much more hay than the 
proportion on the market would indicate. A large part 
of that produced is consumed on the farm. Although it 
appears on the hay market, it is in less demand than 
timothy. This is because it is not considered so well 
adapted to horses as is timothy. A large amount of 
clover is grown mixed with timothy, this mixture also 
being used chiefly on the farm. Alsike clover is grown 
in many localities, but much less in quantity than red 
clover, and chiefly in places too moist for the latter. 

In eastern Canada and in the adjoining portion of the 
United States, hay is obtained from field peas. The 
most important leguminous hay in the South is the cow- 
pea. Other leguminous plants used for hay are the velvet 
bean in the South, crimson clover from New Jersey to 
North Carolina, the soy bean in the Southern and Middle 
States, and the vetches in the cool humid region and as a 
winter plant in the South. 

Coarse Hay or Fodder 

In the wide sense the dried product of the large grasses 
is hay, but it is commonly referred to as fodder. The 
best known fodder comes from corn or maize. When 
corn is grown for the grain, the fodder is utilized so far 
as it can be without interfering with the production of 
grain. Over much of the Corn Belt, the ears of corn are 
gathered from the standing plants and the stalks are 
allowed to remain in the^ field over winter. These stalks 
are usually utilized by turning stock into the field after 
the ears are removed. The matured and weathered 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 25 

fodder has little feeding value, but nubbins and waste 
ears are saved. 

Another method of harvesting corn is to cut the stalks 
before the ears are mature and while the foliage is green. 
The stalks are placed in bunches or shocks to dry in the 
field. The grain matures while the fodder is curing, and 
the ears are husked from the shock by hand or by 
machinery. The fodder produced in this way contains 
much nutriment, its value depending on the stage at 
which the stalks were cut and upon the amount of 
weathering. 

A large amount of fodder is produced from sorgo, 
Kafir, milo and other kinds of sorghum. In the Great 
Plains region, sorgo is often called cane. Sorgo is fre- 
quently grown for fodder alone, in which case it is usually 
sown thickly so that the individual stalks are slender and 
succulent. Corn may be grown in this manner also, 
that is for fodder and not for the grain. Kafir corn may 
be grown for the grain but, like corn, the stalks and 
foliage can be utilized for fodder after the seed has been 
removed. 

Other grasses used in small quantities for fodder are 
teosinte and pearl millet. The foliage of sugar cane is 
used in the area where this plant is grown. 

Millet 

This is the only annual species among the smaller 
grasses that is grown to any considerable extent pri- 
marily for hay. The area where it is used extensively 
extends from Texas to Minnesota. Included under the 
general head of millet or foxtail millet, are common 



26 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

millet, Hungarian grass, and Golden Wonder millet. 
Another kind of millet called proso is grown to a limited 
extent especially northward. This is called also broom- 
corn or hog millet. Sudan grass has assumed prominence 
in recent years. 

Ordinary Meadow Hay 

Under this term is included the hay made from the 
cultivated perennial meadow grasses. The most im- 
portant and best known meadow grass of the cool humid 
region is timothy. This is the standard hay of the 
market and is a basis of comparison for all others. Red- 
top is produced in considerable quantities in the acid or 
moist soil of the same region, especially along the At- 
lantic coast from New England to Maryland. In the 
Southern States especially in Texas, Johnson grass is ex- 
tensively utilized. Brome grass is used in the region 
from Nebraska to Montana and Minnesota. Orchard 
grass and meadow fescue are of some importance in the 
cool humid region. Rye grass is sometimes grown for 
hay, especially in the South as a winter crop. 

Soiling 

The process of cutting forage and feeding green is 
known as soiling. This method of utilizing forage is only 
practicable in connection with intensive farming, such as 
dairying. The labor is greater and the waste less than 
in pasturing. Annual plants such as the grains, and 
some coarse fodder grasses such as corn, sorghum, and 
teosinte are the usual soiling plants. In the tropics hay 
is seldom produced as the conditions permit the growing 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 27 

of forage throughout the year. Here soiling is the usual 
method of feeding animals. The grasses most commonly- 
cultivated for this purpose are Guinea grass and Para 
grass. 

Silage 

The advantage of feeding green forage by soiling is so 
evident that agriculturists desire to continue, if possible, 
the feeding of succulent forage throughout the year. 
This is now made possible by means of silos. The green 
feed is preserved or canned and fed as wanted during the 
year. A silo is a large tank or room, in which green 
forage is placed, the air being excluded so far as prac- 
ticable. The forage starts to ferment but this process 
ceases as soon as the entangled air is used up. The 
material remains in the slightly fermented condition until 
removed for feeding. If the silo is poorly constructed 
and air gains entrance, the fermentation continues and 
the whole mass may become rotten and useless. Al- 
though any forage plant may be preserved in a silo the. 
plant most used for the purpose is corn. 

NOMENCLATURE OF GRASSES 

The common names of grasses are those by which they 
are known in the language of the countries in which they 
grow spontaneously or in which they are cultivated. 
The English name of cultivated grasses varies in different 
countries. What is known in the United States as 
orchard grass is called in England cock's foot. Even in 
the United States, a grass may be known by more than 
one name or the same name may be applied to more than 



28 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

one species. Timothy is also known as Herd's grass and 
the name Herd's grass is also applied to redtop. In order 
to standardize names, that they, may be understood by 
botanists in all countries, Latin names have been applied 
to plants. Botanists have classified plants into families, 
the families into genera, the genera into species. The 
grasses form a distinct family among plants. For con- 
venience, the grasses have been divided into smaller 
groups. There are about 20,000 species or kinds of 
grasses. These have been grouped in about 400 genera. 
Each genus includes the species that resemble each 
other, the classification being based on the structure of 
the flowers. A Latin name has been given to each genus. 
To the bluegrasses, including Kentucky bluegrass, 
Canada bluegrass, Texas bluegrass, and many wild 
species all over the world, has been given the name Poa; 
to the bent grasses, including redtop, Rhode Island bent, 
carpet bent, and a large number of wild grasses that 
closely resemble these, has been given the name Agrostis. 
The species or particular kind in each genus has received 
a Latin name. Botanically, each kind of grass is known 
by the Latin name of the genus and species to which it 
belongs. Bluegrass is called Poa pratensis; Canada 
bluegrass, Poa compressa; Texas bluegrass, Poa arach- 
nifera, and so on. The first part of the Latin designation 
is called the generic name; the second part, the specific 
name. In this book is given the Latin or botanical 
name of each grass described. This is done in order 
that botanists in this country and in other countries may 
know with certainty the kind of grass described or 
mentioned. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON FORAGE GRASSES 29 

It is customary to place after the Latin name of a 
plant the name of the botanist who placed the spe- 
cies in the genus to which it is assigned, the name, for 
convenience, being abbreviated. This enables botanists 
to investigate further, if they wish, the botanical history 
of the grass. As Linnaeus, the famous Swedish natur- 
alist, w)as the first to place Kentucky bluegrass in the 
genus Poa, the species is written Poa pratensis L. A 
second name is sometimes placed in parentheses. This 
indicates that the species had previously been included 
in another genus and was transferred to the present 
genus by the botanist whose name, or its abbreviation, 
stands after the parentheses. The botanical name of 
Bermuda grass is Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze. 
Linnaeus placed the species in the genus Panicum and 
Kuntze transferred it to the genus Capriola. 



CHAPTER IV 

CULTURE OF GRASSES 

The culture of grass crops is governed by the same 
general principles that are applicable to other farm crops. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

To produce the best results, ordinary meadow grasses 
require a fertile, well drained soil. Of course there are 
soils upon which, because they are sandy, rocky, alkaline, 
or are too wet or too dry, average crops cannot be grown. 
Upon such soils it may be possible to grow species espe- 
cially adapted to them, and such grasses may require 
special methods of culture. These requirements are 
mentioned under the paragraphs devoted to the indi- 
vidual grasses. The methods of culture are similar to 
those used in the growing of grain, in practically all 
regions where grain is raised. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 

Meadow grasses have small seeds, hence require a soil 
that has been put in fine tilth in which they may be 
lightly and evenly sown and not deeply buried. A 
coarse lumpy surface causes waste of seed, for much of 
it will be placed in such unfavorable environment that 
either it will fail to germinate or fail to live and grow 
after germination. The depth of plowing must depend 
upon circumstances. Under usual conditions the drain- 

30 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 3 1 

age and tilth is improved by deep plowing but soil which 
has been shallow-plowed for several years may be injured 
by suddenly deepening the plowing and bringing the 
sterile subsoil to the surface. In such cases it may be 
best gradually to deepen the plowing, bringing to the 
surface only a small quantity each year. In the Great 
Plains region where strong dry winds prevail in the 
spring, deep plowing may be a distinct injury as the soil 
is sometimes blown away to the depth of the plowing. 
Here it may be necessary to disk or to drill in stubble 
without plowing. 

SOWING THE SEED 

Grass seed is sown broadcast or with a drill upon 
properly prepared soil. In general it takes less seed per 
acre when a drill is used. Not all kinds of grass seed 
can be sown with a drill. Sorts with fluffy or chaffy 
seeds do not feed regularly through the machine, though 
they can often be made to do so when mixed with sand. 
Broadcasting by hand is the primitive way to sow grass, 
grain, and small seeds generally, and an expert can 
scatter them with surprising evenness. There are many 
devices, such as the wheelbarrow seeder, now sold, by 
which the seed can be broadcasted mechanically. These 
machines scatter the seed more evenly than can usually 
be done by hand, especially by the modern farmer who 
has less practice in this kind of sowing than had his 
grandfather. 

Seeds that are large enough to allow of being planted an 
inch below the surface are now usually sown with a grain 
drill. This machine places the seed at a uniform depth 



32 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

and distributes the seed more economically than does 
broadcasting. 

Grasses are not usually planted in rows for cultivation 
when grown primarily for forage, though the larger kinds 
often are when grown for seed. 

CARE OF PASTURES 

Temporary pastures which form part of a rotation will 
be considered in another paragraph. Here a few words 
will be said about the care of permanent pastures. On 
fully developed farms, the land usually devoted to 
permanent pastures is likely to be that land which can- 
not be utilized for crops. It may be too rough or rocky, 
or land partially covered with timber, or land lying along 
streams or ravines. In the humid region such land is 
naturally or artificially seeded to bluegrass, or a mixture 
of various grasses, but in which bluegrass is likely to 
dominate on the drier portions. There are a few general 
principles which apply to all pasture lands to keep them 
from deteriorating. 

In the first place care should be taken that pastures are 
not overgrazed. The number of head of stock which a 
given area will support depends upon conditions and 
must be determined by experiment. The stock eat the 
most palatable growth first, hence weeds and undesirable 
plants are left to flourish unrestrained. Within limits 
the natural growth of the grass will keep the M^eeds in 
subjection but if the pasture is over-grazed, the weeds 
soon get the upper hand. If coarse weeds become promi- 
nent in a pasture it should be mowed occasionally so as 
to give the grass a better chance to overcome them. It 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 33 

is a fallacy to suppose that close grazing will keep down 
weeds. 

Another important point in preventing the deteriora- 
tion of pastures is to keep stock off when growth starts 
in the spring. The growth of grass should be allowed to 
reach 2 or 3 inches before cattle are turned into the 
pasture unless the number is so small that there is no 
danger of retarding the growth of the grass. If the 
green parts are kept too closely grazed, the plants do 
not have an opportunity to generate strength for the 
season and hence tend to die out. It is true that if the 
grass gets ahead of the cattle and begins to head out 
the cattle do not relish it so much, but in such cases the 
pasture can be mowed to start new growth. Drouth 
soon reduces the carrying capacity of a pasture and much 
damage may result if it is full-grazed during such a period. 

Unless a pasture is fertilized at intervals, its carrying 
capacity gradually decreases. Top-dressing with barn- 
yard manure renews the fertility. In the absence of a 
supply of manure, artificial fertilizer may be used. Small 
quantities applied often give better results in the aggre- 
gate than larger quantities applied infrequently. Of 
artificial fertilizers, potash and phosphoric acid are likely 
to give the best returns. Low or wet land is usually 
improved by the application of lime. It is best not to 
apply lime at the same time as other fertilizer as it tends 
to release the nitrogen. 

If a pasture becomes run down, rejuvenation may be 
helped by reseeding with a mixture of bluegrass, white 
clover, redtop, and timothy. Timothy gives the quick- 
est returns but soon runs out. 



34 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

If the pasture is such as to allow of plowing it can 
best be rejuvenated by plowing and reseeding as de- 
scribed under temporary pastures. 

CARE OF MEADOWS 

There is little to be said concerning the care of perma- 
nent meadows beyond calling attention to the fact that 
by continually cutting and removing the hay the 
fertility of the soil is gradually reduced. Some soils are 
of such a structure that the deterioration is not noticeable 
for several years. The loss of nitrogen and usually of 
potash or phosphoric acid will reduce the yield per- 
ceptibly in a few years. Hence it is necessary to fer- 
tilize meadows in the same way as mentioned above for 
pastures. 

Lowland meadows that are subject to overflow may 
receive fertilizing material by the deposit of silt. The 
meadows around the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia are 
regularly fertilized in this manner. Dikes are built to 
keep out the sea water but at intervals of several years 
the meadows are flooded at high tide, when a thin coating 
of silt or ooze is deposited. During the first season the 
rains wash out the excess of saline matter and the 
meadows are rejuvenated. 

) MAKING HAY 

The methods of making hay are so well known that 
the process in general will not be described in detail. 
Machinery for making hay is now in such general use 
that hand methods will be passed over. The grass is cut 
with a mowing machine and allowed to cure, after which 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 35 

it is stored in stacks, sheds, or hay mows. This sounds 
very simple, and under favorable conditions the process 
is as simple as it sounds. The difficulties arise in the 
process of curing when the conditions are not favorable. 
If the grass is wet with rain when partly cured, or if the 
atmosphere is so humid that the moisture from the grass 
cannot be removed, it deteriorates rapidly in quality and 
may mould or decay. If the shower or wet spell is 
followed by favorable weather, the hay may be recovered 
without much loss. If it had been raked into windrows 
or put into bunches or cocks, it usually becomes necessary 
to spread the hay for drying. Tedders which pick up 
and scatter the hay are useful in handling a heavy crop 
in the swath or scattering it when put in the windrow. 
A small amount of moisture may detract from the appear- 
ance of hay without injuring its nutritive value. But 
thorough wetting, especially after the hay is partly 
cured, causes a rapid deterioration in the feeding value. 
If hay is put up when damp or before being thoroughly 
cured it may ferment or mould. Sometimes the heat 
produced by fermentation is sufficient actually to burn 
or carbonize the hay. 

In wet climates, various devices are used to aid in 
curing hay. The simplest is to throw the partly cured 
hay into cocks at the approach of a shower and cover 
with some kind of an impervious cover such as canvas or 
specially prepared paper or pasteboard hay caps. On 
the return of favorable weather the cocks are opened to 
dry. In some cases the freshly cut grass is put up in 
drying sheds. These consist of a series of open frame- 
work floors upon which the grass is placed in layers thin 

■4 



36 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

enough to dry by ordinary air circulation, the whole 
being under a roof. In wet, tropical countries, arti- 
ficial drying machines have been used. The grass is 
dried by a current of hot air. The machines are effective 
but costly. 

The time to cut grass for hay depends somewhat on 
the kind, but in general it should not be cut much before 
flowering nor as late as the ripening of the seed. The 
aim should be to obtain maximum weight and maximum 
nutritive qualities. The weight increases up to the 
time of the maturity of the seed, but the nutritive quality 
decreases after flowering. Usually the combination is 
greatest about half way between flowering and maturity. 
Hay cut when in flower, however, usually has higher 
nutritive quality. Furthermore, while the nutriment is 
in the leaves as it is in the earlier condition it is more 
available to stock than when it is mostly in the stems as 
it is later, because the stems are not so readily eaten 
By nutritive quality as here used is meant palatability 
combined with digestibility. The value of hay depends 
in large part on how much the animal is willing to eat. 

GRASS IN ROTATION 

Most of what has been said above in regard to care 
refers to permanent meadows or pastures. In consider- 
ing the question of temporary pastures or meadows, 
certain aspects appear which modify greatly the method 
of procedure. In permanent pastures the element of 
labor beyond the first year is insignificant.. Conse- 
quently a lower return of interest on the investment is 
permissible. The yield of permanent fields after the 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 37 

first 2 or 3 years decreases considerably. It is evident 
that the greatest return in yield is obtained when the 
fields are reseeded as often as every three years. It is for 
this reason that grass occupies a promine^it position in 
nearly all systems of rotation. A meadow gives its 
greatest yield the first crop year and a fair return the 
second crop year. Hence in a rotation a field can be 
used one or two years for meadow, followed by one or 
two years of pasture. Where the land value and cost 
of labor permit, the best results are likely to be given by 
one year of meadow and one year of pasture. This of 
course is followed by a cultivated crop of some kind and, 
somewhere in the series, by a leguminous crop. In such a 
system there is little trouble from weeds and, because of 
the high state of fertility maintained, the yield is high. 
Since rotation of crops is a subject which has to do with 
general farm practice it will not be further discussed here. 

GRASS SEED 

Success in the growing of forage crops can scarcely be 
attained unless pure viable seed is used. Timothy seed 
is now grown on such a large scale, and under conditions 
so favorable for the production of the first grade seed 
that a satisfactory quality may be obtained of this im- 
portant forage grass. The seed of many other kinds is 
not infrequently low in viability or mixed with weed seed 
or with chafT. 

By viability is meant ability of the seed to germinate. 
The seed of corn or wheat as ordinarily used by the 
grower has a viability of nearly lOO per cent, that is, 
nearly every seed will grow if placed under the proper 



38 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

conditions. But much grass seed as sold on the market 
may show a viabiHty of very much less than loo per 
cent, sometimes not over 50 per cent, while in poor 
grades it may be reduced to zero. 

If seed has nothing wrong with it except its low via- 
bility, no great harm may ensue. There is the loss due 
to paying more for the seed than it is worth and the dis- 
appointment arising from a poor stand. Much more 
serious is the adulteration with poor and cheap varieties 
or the presence of weed seeds. Not only is there less 
good seed but there is the danger of establishing perni- 
cious weeds difficult to eradicate. 

The quality of the seed may be reduced by the presence 
of foreign seed (seed other than the kind purchased) 
some of which may be pestiferous, or by presence of 
inert matter such as dirt, chaff, or old seed. It is evi- 
dently to the advantage of the grower if he be able to 
test his seed and determine for himself if it be of good 
quality both as to germinating power (viability) and 
purity — that is freedom from weed seeds and chaff. 
The farmer can always obtain information as to the 
quality of his seed by sending a sample of it to the 
director of his State Experiment Station or to the Seed 
Laboratory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

The farmer can determine for himself the viability of 
his seed. He can also determine the purity, though it 
requires expert knowledge to identify the particular kind 
of foreign seed that may be present. 

To determine the purity it is only necessary to examine 
a sample with care. Spread it out on a piece of white 
paper and separate all dirt, chaff, or withered seed and 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 



39 




estimate the proportion of good seed. A small magni- 
fying glass is a help in this work as many of the grass 
seeds are small (fig. i). If one wishes to know accurately 
the proportion of good 
seed it is necessary to 
weigh the sample and 
afterwards to weigh the 
good seed. As farmers 
usually do not possess 
balances for weighing 
such small amounts and 
as these instruments are 
expensive, it is best to 
send samples to an ex- 
periment station. How- 
ever, a very fair estimate 
can be made without 
accurate weighing. 

The seed of grasses is enclosed in chaff which is not 
usually removed in threshing. Timothy seed is fairly 
free from chaff but seed of bluegrass and most other 
grasses has a rather large proportion of chaff. The 
value of seed depends, of course, on the amount of good 
seed as distinguished from the chaff. The weed seeds 
can be easily separated, and if there is more than a very 
small amount, the grass seed should not be used for 
sowing. In examining the seed of bluegrass, redtop, 
etc., one should pick out the actual seed with a needle 
or other small sharp instrument, so that he may know 
just what he is looking for. A good seed is hard to the 
touch like a grain of wheat (on a small scale) or a timothy 



I . Magnifying glass suitable for 
testing the purity of seeds. 



40 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 







\ 




2. Seeds of some common grasses as they appear in commercial 
samples, a, timothy enclosed in chafif. b, timothy free from chaff. 
c, bluegrass, a single floret from a several-flowered spikelet, the seed 
being enclosed in the chaff (lemma and palea) the joint of th2 
rachilla showing on the concave side, d, redtop, a seed enclosed in 
its chaff (lemma and palea). e, redtop,. the naked seed. /, redtop, 
the outer chaff or glumes. Well-cleaned seed should consist mostly 
of seed like d and e and should be nearly free from the coarse chaff 
like/, g, orchard grass, h, meadow fescue, i, English or perennial 
rye grass. /", brome grass. In figurers g to j the spikelet has been 
broken up in threshing so that there is presented a single floret with a 
joint of the rachilla. 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 4I 

seed. Chaff with no seed inside is soft and collapses 
when pressed with a needle. Some of the common grass 
seeds are shown in figure 2. 

Seed not infrequently is adulterated with various 
things, especially with old seed. The mixture looks all 
right but will not grow well. 

It is to be recommended that every grower also test 
the germinating power (viability) of the seed he is going 
to use. This is a simple process and well repays the 
small amount of trouble required. He can then know 
what results he may expect and whether in purchasing 
his seed he has obtained the worth of his money. 

To test germination it is only necessary to place the 
seed under favorable conditions as to temperature and 
moisture. Most progressive farmers now are in the 
habit of testing seed corn for viability and hence will 
readily understand how to handle grass seed for the 
same purpose. 

The seed may be spread upon moist sand or upon wet 
cloth or blotting paper, and should be kept for several 
days at a fairly uniform temperature, about that of living 
room. Soup plates make convenient germinators. A 
plate is partly filled with clean sand and the sand satur- 
ated with water. Upon the sand is placed a sheet of 
blotting paper or a piece of Canton flannel. The seed 
to be tested is placed upon the paper or cloth and covered 
with a second layer of paper or cloth. There should be 
enough water to saturate the sand and the covers but 
not enough to show an excess of liquid so that the seeds 
lie in water. A second soup plate is inverted over the 
first to prevent drying out. The germinator is placed 



42 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

where it will not be too hot in the day time nor too cold 
at night. It is best to maintain a temperature of 60 to 
80 degrees Fahrenheit, The sand should be kept 
saturated with water. Some seeds are likely to germi- 
nate in 4 or 5 days but the test should be continued for 
as much as two- weeks. The seeds are removed as fast 
as they sprout and a record kept of the number. For 
accurate results the seed sample should be weighed and a 
count made of the seeds to be tested. The result can 
then be expressed in percentage of germination. How- 
ever, a very fair estimate can be made by a small sample 
of, say, a spoonful for the test. The seed should be 
well mixed before the sample is taken. It is well to 
try more than one sample so as to get an average. 

Timothy seed is usually nearly 100 per cent pure and 
the viability is high, usually 98 per cent or more. Hence 
it is recommended to those who are not familiar with 
home testing that they try a sample of timothy along 
with any other seed to be tested. This acts as a check 
on results. Bluegrass is usually mixed with much chaff, 
even the best grade containing 10 to 20 per cent of chaff, 
and the viability is likely to be 65 to 80 per cent. But 
poor grades will run much lower in both purity and 
viability. The seed to be tested should be examined for 
purity to see that it is not adulterated with some other 
kind of seed. And in counting the germinating plants 
no record should be made of plants other than the kind 
tested. A reference to the figures of the common kinds 
of grass seed will aid in determining purity. Orchard 
grass, meadow fescue, and redtop should show a viability 
of 95 per cent; brome grass of as much as 90 per cent. 



CULTURE OF GRASSES 43 

That is out of lOO seed tested 95 or 90 should germinate 
in about 2 weeks. Of course the actual percentage can 
not be determined unless a definite number of seeds had 
been counted out. But as said before a rough estimate 
of the quality can be made, without counting. 

It is evident that the price to be paid for seed depends 
on the purity and viability. Of the ordinary pasture and 
meadow grasses timothy is the only one that, when 
purchased of reliable dealers, is likely to show nearly 100 
per cent purity and viability. Others, especially Ken- 
tucky bluegrass, show great variation. Low grade seed 
is dear at any price and high grade seed may not always 
be above suspicion. Much of the failure to obtain good 
results with grasses other than timothy may be due to 
using a poor quality of seed. It should be borne in mind 
that the farmer always may have recourse to his State 
Experiment Station or to the Seed Laboratory of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. A full account of seed 
testing may be found in Farmers' Bulletin (U. S. Dept. 
Agriculture) no. 428 entitled Testing Farm Seeds in the 
Home and in the Rural School, by F. H. Hillman. This 
bulletin may be obtained on application to Secretary of 
Agriculture. 



CHAPTER V 
THE STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 

In order to understand the descriptions of the grasses 
set forth in the following pages, it will be necessary to 
learn something of the more important parts and organs 
of the grass plant. 

Grasses are distinguished from other plants by the 
jointed stem, and the long narrow parallel-veined leaves 
placed in two opposite rows along the stem. The struc- 
ture of the flowers is characteristic and will be explained 
in a separate paragraph. Typical grasses are exempli- 
fied by timothy, bluegrass, and wheat. Other members 
of the grass family are certain larger plants that are not 
always associated with the typical forms mentioned 
above. Among such are corn, sorghum, sugar cane, and 
bamboos. Some plants belonging to other families 
resemble grasses in having long narrow blades. Among 
these may be mentioned sedges, rushes, and certain kinds 
of lilies. In all these the structure of the flowers is 
different. But aside from the structure of the flowers, 
the sedges, the family which most nearly resembles 
grasses, may be distinguished by the arrangement of the 
leaves. As stated above the leaves of grasses are ar- 
ranged along the round or somewhat flattened stem in 
two rows and are said to be 2-ranked. In sedges the 
leaves are arranged in three ranks and the stem is often 
3-sided or 3-angled. 

44 



THE STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 45 

The structure of grasses will be explained under the 
following heads: root, rootstock, stem, leaf, flower. 

ROOTS AND ROOTSTOCKS 

The underground parts of grasses are popularly known 
as roots but are of two kinds, differing in structure and 
function, the true roots serving the purpose of taking up 
water and food from the soil, the rootstocks serving for 
propagation. 

Root. — ^The roots of grasses always consist of clusters 
of slender fibers such as shown by wheat or oats when 
pulled from the soil. 

.The ends of the rootlets are covered with fine hairs 
(root-hairs) giving them a velvety appearance. By 
means of these the roots are able to absorb water from 
the soil, and, dissolved in the water, the mineral sub- 
stances present in the soil, these being the food of 
the plant. Certain underground parts that are of- 
ten confused with roots are described in the following 
paragraph. 

Rootstock. — ^This is a modified stem which creeps 
underground. It bears roots and small modified leaves 
or scales, and sends up at intervals shoots which develop 
into ordinary stems and leaves. The function of root- 
stocks is to propagate or spread the plant. Rootstocks 
are found in bluegrass, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, 
and others. Grasses with rootstocks are always peren- 
nial. The part above ground may die but the rootstocks 
remain alive over winter and send up shoots the following 
spring. Rootstocks are also called rhizomes. 



46 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

STEMS AND LEAVES 

The vegetative parts of grasses, the green parts above 
ground, consist of stem and leaves. 

Stem. — The stem is the central axis of the plant which 
bears the leaves and finally the flowers. In most of the 
common crop grasses the stems are simple and upright, 
that is they are not branched above ground. However, 
nearly all grasses stool. This stooling is a vigorous 
branching at the base, as shown typically by wheat. 
In technical descriptions the stem is called the culm. 

The stem is usually round (cylindric) but is sometimes 
somewhat flattened, distinctly so in Canada bluegrass. 
It is divided into sections (jointed) separated by nodes 
(joints), the slightly swollen places, discerned distinctly 
in the straw of wheat and other grains. Many grass 
stems are hollow, as in wheat, but may be solid or pithy 
as in corn, sorghum, and Johnson grass. At each node 
is borne a leaf. In many, grasses the nodes are close 
together at the base of the stem. The crowding of the 
nodes produces a crowding of the leaves, the latter thus 
appearing in a tuft at the base. This is true of nearly 
all perennial grasses such as bluegrass and rye grass. 
The early shoots remain short with crowded leaves. The 
stem elongates only when the plant is ready to produce 
flowering shoots. 

In a few grasses, such as Bermuda grass, the plant 
produces slender stems or runners which creep along the 
surface of the ground, taking root at the joints and 
sending up flower-stems. Such creeping stems are 
technically known as stolons. 



THE STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 47 

Leaf. — The leaves are the foliage organs of the plant. 
They may be crowded in tufts as already described or 
may be scattered along the stem. In our common 
meadow and pasture grasses the stems remain short in 
the early part of the season and the foliage is thick and 
tufted close to the ground. Later the long flower stems 
are produced. After the ripening of the seed the flower 
stems wither away and during the remainder of the season 
the grass continues in- the tufted condition. 

The leaves invariably arise from a node or joint of a 
stem, one leaf to each node. This arrangement is dis- 
tinctly seen in larger grasses like corn or sorghum. A 
leaf consists of two parts, the sheath and the blade. The 
sheath is wrapped around the stem, usually for some 
distance above the node. It is usually split on the side 
opposite the blade, one side of the sheath overlapping the 
other. The blade, commonly called the "leaf," is 
attached at the upper end of the sheath; it is usually 
narrow, flat, and gradually pointed. A strong vein or 
vascular bundle passes along the center from base to 
apex, and on each side parallel to the mid- vein, are 
several delicate lateral veins. These veins are also 
known as nerves. They consist of minute tubes for the 
conduction of sap from the stem into the leaves. By 
holding a thin blade up to a strong light, numerous 
minute cross veins may be seen. At the base of the 
blade where it joins with the sheath is a delicate mem- 
brane running up around the stem for a short distance. 
This is called the ligule. It is usually less than one-half 
inch long, often much shorter, sometimes so short as tQ 
be detected only with a lens. 



48 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

FLOWERS AND SEED 

The reproductive parts of the plant consist of flowers, 
which in turn produce the seed. 

Flower. — The individual flowers of grasses are ar- 
ranged in spikelets, which are usually small and incon- 
spicuous, but nearly always are aggregated in clusters or 
masses technically known as the inflorescence. The 
inflorescence of the grains and most of our common 
grasses is known to the layman as the flower or seed 
head. And when the inflorescence appears the plant is 
said to be headed-out. The flower cluster or head may 
be dense as in timothy and wheat, or open as in oats and 
bluegrass. 

The unit of the inflorescence or head is the spikelet. 
This can be easily observed in wheat or oats. The wheat 
head consists of a central flattish zig-zag axis with a row 
of spikelets on each side. The spikelets are fastened at 
the joints of the axis, alternating with each other on the 
two sides, those in each row overlapping. In oats the 
spikelets are hanging from slender branchlets of the 
inflorescence. In timothy the spikelets are very small 
and flat, and are crowded in a dense cylindric mass or 
head. 

The spikelet contains the individual flowers. The 
familiar wheat spikelet will illustrate this. The flattened 
spikelet consists of several overlapping scale-like bracts 
(fig. 3). These bracts are in two rows and when removed 
are boat-shaped. In bearded wheat some of the bracts 
extend into long bristles (the beard). If a wheat spikelet 
is examined at the time the wheat is in flower, it will be 
found that the middle bracts, when pulled apart, contain 



THE STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 



49 



a flower, that is, a pistil and three stamens. If the wheat 
heads are observed in the early morning, about sunrise, 
the bracts will be seen to be open or spread apart, and 
the two feathery tops of 
the pistil and the three slen- 
der stamens will be hang- 
ing out. The stamens will 
be shedding the pollen at 
this time. A light gust of 
wind or a touch of the 
hand will send the pollen 
flying in little clouds. 

The structure of the 
spikelet is as follows: on 
the outside or bottom is a 
pair of empty bracts, that 
is, when pulled apart there 
will be no flower within. 
The third and following 
bracts except one or two 
small ones at the top, con- 
tain each a flower. Later 
the flower is succeeded by 

a seed or grain. The two lower bracts which contain 
no flower nor grain, are technically known as glumes. 
The following bracts, those that contain flowers and 
later the grains, are called lemmas. Behind each grain 
is found another little bract. This is called the palea. 
The spikelet of wheat is said to be several-flowered. The 
spikelet of the oat is 2-flowered or 3-flowered. In these 
the lemma in gome varieties has an awn or bristle on the 




3. Spikelet of wheat: a, por- 
tion of axis with 3 spikelets; b, 
a single spikelet; c, a floret. 



50 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

back. The spikelets of redtop and of timothy are very 
small and are i -flowered, consisting of a pair of glumes 
and a lemma and palea. 

The spikelets of wheat and oats are large enough to be 
examined easily with the unaided eye, but the spikelets 
of some grasses, such as redtop and timothy, are so small 
(only 1/12 inch long) that a hand lens or small magni- 
fying glass is needed to make out their structure satis- 
factorily. 

The botanical classification of grasses is based upon 
the structure of the spikelets, and a botanical description 
emphasizes the details of these, but in the present work, 
which is agricultural rather than botanical, the descrip- 
tions of the spikelets are brief and include only such 
details as can be seen easily without dissection. 

Seed. — The seed is always developed from a flower. 
In grasses a single seed is developed from each flower, 
and each spikelet may produce as many seeds as there 
are perfect flowers. When the seeds are rather large they 
are usually known as grains. This term is applied espe- 
cially to corn and the cultivated grasses known as 
"small grains," such as wheat and oats. On the other 
hand the term grain is not applied to the small seeds of 
redtop, bluegrass, and timothy. Botanically the so- 
called seed of grasses is a fruit. The "seed" or grain of 
wheat is a fruit (ripened ovary) containing a single seed 
which is grown fast to the walls of the fruit to form the 
grain. When a grain of corn is soaked in water the 
enclosing fruit can be peeled off as a separate covering 
leaving the actual seed. For practical purposes the 
seed and fruit of grasses are, the same and in this worl^ 



THE STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 5 1 

are so considered. That is, in the description of the 
grasses, what is really the fruit is referred to as the seed, 
or in case of the large fruits, as the grain. 

In corn, wheat, rye, and some other grasses the seed 
(fruit) separates from the chaff of the spikelet (the 
glumes and lemmas), and, when threshed, comes into the 
market as a naked grain or seed. In many others the 
seed remains permanently enclosed in the lemma and 
palea. To this group belong oats and barley. A grain 
of oats or barley is, then, a covering of chaff, the lemma 
and palea, with the real grain or seed inside. This grain 
can be removed by cutting away the enclosing chaff. 

The commercial seed of bluegrass and redtop consists 
of the broken up spikelets, each seed being enclosed by 
the lemma and palea. In these and many other meadow 
and pasture grasses the commercial seed is an uncertain 
mixture of chaff and viable seed. The seed is so light 
that in threshing and cleaning it is not separated from 
the chaff, or at least very incompletely so. Furthermore 
many of these grasses do not ripen all the seed of the 
head at the same time, nor do all of the heads ripen, even 
approximately, at the same time. Therefore when a field 
is harvested, there is a comparatively small percentage of 
ripe seed in the harvested heads. When these heads 
are threshed, the resulting seed, as»it is offered for sale, 
consists of a rather small amount of ripe viable seed 
mixed with a varying amount of chaff. Timothy is one 
of the few meadow grasses in which the seed is little 
diluted by chaff. The heads ripen about the same time 
and the ripe seed can be rather easily separated from the 
chaff. In sowing timothy one has a fairly accurate 
5 



52 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

knowledge of the condition of the seed and can calculate 
the amount to sow per acre. With other grasses such 
as bluegrass and redtop, only a careful examination with 
a magnifying glass will reveal the proportion of viable 
seed and then only approximately and often uncertainly. 
A closer approximation can be made by germination 
tests. The latter is really the only practicable method to 
determine the value of commercial seed of most of our 
meadow and pasture grasses (see Chapter IV). It is 
evident from this that the farmer who is not in position 
to determine for himself the value of his seed must depend 
upon the reliability of his seedsman. The selling price 
of seed should be an indication of its purity. It is 
advisable to purchase the best grade at a higher price. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 

Among all the grasses that are cultivated in the 
United States for forage, three stand out preeminently. 
These are timothy, bluegrass, and Bermuda grass. 

TIMOTHY 

Timothy is the most important meadow grass in 
America and timothy hay is the standard hay upon the 
market, the criterion by which all other hay is measured. 
It was one of the ea,rliest grasses to be cultivated in this 
country for hay and at once became dominant. While 
timothy is no more nutritious than many other grasses 
it has other qualities that cause it to be favored above all 
other meadow grasses in the regions where it thrives. 
The seed is cheap and reliable, and of a nature that 
renders it easy to handle and to sow. It is borne in a 
compact head ; the heads are formed at a fairly uniform 
height from the ground; the seed ripens approximately 
at the same time, does not shatter much, and is produced 
in abundance. All these qualities tend to keep the price 
of the seed low. Good seed at low price would in itself 
place any grass in a favorable position in the estimation 
of growers. To these advantages should be added those 
of being palatable, nutritious, easily grown and harvested 
and of covering the ground evenly rather than in tussocks 

53 



54 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

as in the case of orchard grass. For these reasons 
timothy occupies a dominating position in the agriculture 
of the humid region, a position from which it is not 
likely to be displaced by any other grass now in culti- 
vation. 

The region in which timothy thrives is the same as that 
favorable to bluegrass, that is, the humid region. In 
general this is the northeastern states and south to the . 
southern boundary of Virginia and Kentucky, and 
further south in the mountains, and west to about the 
ninety-sixth meridian; and in the western mountains in 
the Puget Sound region. Timothy can be grown up to 
about 10,000 feet in the mountains of Colorado and to a 
correspondingly lower altitude further north. It; can 
be grown under irrigation in the more northerly arid 
regions but does not thrive in the southern portion of the 
United States even under irrigation. 

The importance of timothy is shown by the statistics 
from the Census Report for 1909 (see page 7). The 
acreage of timothy in the United States was 14,686,393 
of timothy and clover mixed, 19,542,382 ; the production 
in tons, timothy, 17,985,420, timothy and clover, 
24,748,555; the value, timothy, $188,082,895, timothy 
and clover, $257,280,330. This is far above the amount 
for any other hay crop. The corresponding figures for 
alfalfa, the greatest of the leguminous crops are: acreage, 
4,707,146; production, 11,859,881; value, $93,103,998. 
The states leading in the production of timothy and 
of timothy and clover are given in Table IV (page 
7). 



the three leading forage grasses 55 

Timothy as a Meadow Grass 

Timothy is a short-lived perennial and is not well 
adapted to permanent meadow. The hay crop decreases 
markedly after the first two or three years. For best 
results, therefore, a meadow should be kept in timothy 
for only two or three years and then plowed up and used 
for some other purpose. Usually the plan is to mow for 
hay the first two years and continue for pasture the third 
year. It is a common practice over much of the humid 
region to grow timothy with clover. Hay grown for the 
market is usually made from timothy grown alone, as 
pure timothy hay is demanded in most markets and 
brings a higher price than mixed hay, and for horses is 
more suitable. For consumption on the farm timothy 
and clover is desirable as it is more nutritious, though 
not so well adapted to horses. 

Timothy may be sown in fall or spring according to 
circumstances. When the conditions are favorable, 
timothy alone or timothy and clover mixed should be 
sown in the fall, that is in late August or early September. 
The plants should be well started by the end of the 
growing season and produce a full crop the following 
year. In this way the crop is produced with the least 
loss of time. If the seed is sown in the spring, a crop will 
be produced the first year but not a full crop. Further- 
more, weeds interfere with a spring-sown crop much 
more than with a fall-sown one. Therefore, there is a 
greater return from the land if a summer crop is grown 
which can be removed in time for the fall sowing of 
timothy. It is a common practice in much of the timo- 



56 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

thy region to sow grain with timothy in the fall. In this 
way a grain crop is produced the following year and a full 
crop of timothy the third year. Apparently the crop of 
grain is a clear gain. This is so only under poor methods 
of culture. If the land is in good condition, and the 
crops are treated properly, a greater return is received by 
sowing the grain alone, then after the crop is removed, 
preparing the land for timothy to be sown in the fall. 
The increase in the crop of grain should pay for the 
preparation of the land for the timothy. If the grain is 
sown too thickly with timothy, the latter sufifers and will 
not produce a full crop the following year. Some growers 
sow clover in the spring upon the timothy sown the pre- 
ceding fall. This is done especially when the timothy 
has been sown with grain. 

In preparing the seed bed for timothy, it must be 
remembered that the seed is very small and should be 
covered lightly. It is therefore necessary to exercise care 
that the soil be placed in fine tilth. The harrowing 
should be such as to cover the seed not deeper than about 
half an inch. 

On land not perfectly adapted to timothy, a little red- 
top may be added as a filler. This will increase the 
yield. Spots that are too wet for timothy will produce 
redtop. This is not advisable if the timothy is grown for 
sale as the admixture of redtop reduces its price. Tim- 
othy should be sown with a seeding machine, such as a 
wheelbarrow seeder. A drill places the seed too deep. 
If sown with grain a grain drill can be used with a special 
timothy attachment. The amount of seed sown per 
acre depends upon the condition of the soil. It also 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 



57 



depends upon the purity of the seed, but fortunately for 
the grower, timothy seed is usually of a fairly high grade 
of purity and viability. It is customary to use 12 to 18 
pounds per acre. If clover is used, the amount of seed 
is about 8 pounds per acre. Timothy 
seed weighs 45 pounds per bushel. 



m 



DESCRIPTION 



A perennial grass usually 2 to 3 feet 
tall, smooth, from a somewhat bulb- 
ous base, growing in small tufts. 
Leaves flat, in the larger plants as 
much as a foot long. Panicle or head 
a dense cylindrical spike 2 to 5 inches 
long. Anthers bluish. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelet 
strongly flattened, i -flowered, about 
3 mm. long; glumes equal ,oblong, long- 
ciliate on the keel, rounded to a short 
awn I to 2 mm.* long; lemma and 
palea about equal, thin and pale, 
about half as long as the glumes. 
The seed of commerce is the caryppsis, 
mostly enclosed in its lemma and 
palea. 

Common Names. — ^Timothy is the 
name most widely used for this grass, this name coming 
from that of Timothy Hanson who is said to have in- 
troduced it into this country. In some localities this 
species is known as Herd's grass, a name which is also 
used for red top. 

* A millimeter (mm.) is about 1/25 of an inch. 



4. Timothy. A 
single head, the 
lower part in flower, 
the stamens pro- 
truding. 



58 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Botanical Name. — PJileum pratense L. The genus 
Phleum includes several species of the Old World that 
are of no importance agriculturally. One species, moun- 
tain timothy {P. alpinum L.), is found in mountain 
regions of both Europe and North America. This is of 
some importance as a forage grass in mountain meadows. 
Phleum is an ancient Greek name for a kind of reed but 
was applied by Linnaeus to the genus of grasses de- 
scribed above. The specific name pratense means grow- 
ing in meadows. 

BLUEGRASS 

Bluegrass is the most important pasture grass in 
America. It does not thrive throughout the United 
States, however, but only in those regions which furnish 
the proper conditions. These conditions are a cool, 
moist climate and a fertile soil rich in lime. The area 
adapted to bluegrass is, in general, the humid region, 
that is, the northeastern states south to Virginia and 
west to eastern Kansas, extending south in the mountains 
to northern Alabama, the northern Pacific Coast from 
Puget Sound to California, and also many isolated areas 
in the western mountains. The limitations mentioned 
above are determined mainly by climatic conditions. 
Bluegrass requires the moisture which is furnished in the 
humid region by the summer rainfall. Its limits of cul- 
tivation can be extended by the use of irrigation, but 
even with artificial water supply, it will not thrive in the 
southern states and in the arid region. Even in the 
humid region, it may suffer from drouth in summer. In 
eastern Kansas and other localities where summer 
drouths are of frequent occurrence, bluegrass languishes 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 59 

during the summer months but revives rapidly during 
the spring and fall. 

Within the climatic area adapted to its growth, blue- 
grass may fail because of the sterility of the soil or be- 
cause of the lack of lime. Sterility of the soil may be 
corrected by the use of fertilizers or by thorough culti- 
vation, but often these methods are not practicable. 
If it is desirable to utilize sterile hills for pasture, it may 
be advisable to use other grasses than bluegrass for this 
purpose. 

As has been said, soils lacking in lime, the so-called 
acid soils, are not well suited to bluegrass. Such soil is 
found especially in the New England states and on the 
Atlantic Coastal Plain. Acid soils are found less fre- 
quently in the Middle States. Recently-drained swamp 
land is usually unsuited to bluegrass without special 
treatment. Acid soils may be rendered suitable by the 
addition of lime or land plaster if the lack of lime is the 
only unfavorable condition. In the lime-poor region of 
the Atlantic Coast it may be more economical to use some 
grass like redtop that thrives on such soil, than it would 
be to resort to liming. 

Bluegrass for Pasture 

In the humid region, bluegrass is the best grass for 
permanent pasture. It does not fit well, however, into a 
rotation where only one, two, or even three years are 
given to pasture. For one or two crop years, larger 
returns are given by other grasses such as timothy or 
orchard grass. In regions where bluegrass abounds it 
conies in spontaneously and occupies grassland suited 



60 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

to its growth. If the species is not found in the locaHty. 
it will be necessary to sow the seed. The treatment is 
the same as that for other pasture and meadow grasses, 
the seed being sown on well-prepared land in spring or 
early autumn. In regions subject to summer drouths, 
bluegrass makes a favorable growth in spring and fall but 
is dormant during the dry season. 

Bluegrass for Lawns 

Bluegrass is the most important lawn grass over the 
area in which it excels as a pasture grass. Its use as a 
lawn grass, however, is practicable where its use as a 
pasture grass may be impracticable, because it is easier 
to supply favorable conditions on small areas. The 
conditions necessary are sufficient moisture and a soil 
fertile and rich in lime. It is therefore possible to grow 
bluegrass for lawns far outside of the range indicated for 
pasture. However it will not thrive in the Southern 
States nor in arid regions of the southwest. In regions 
where favorable conditions are not supplied by nature, 
it is always worth considering whether there may not be 
some other grass that will be adapted to the conditions 
as found. If the soil is lacking in lime, it may be better 
to use carpet bent than to lime the soil for bluegrass. 
In the south, there are grasses, such as Bermuda grass 
and carpet grass suited to the conditions found there. 
The conditions necessary for the growth of bluegrass as 
indicated above, water, fertility, and lime, may be sup- 
plied when lacking, by sprinkling, by the use of fertilizers, 
and by liming. 



the three leading forage grasses 6 1 

Making a Bluegrass Lawn 

A lawn may be made by transplanting turf or by 
seeding. In either case the preparation of the soil is 
the same. The best soil is a rich, well-drained loam such 
as would be considered good soil for the growing of corn, 
wheat or other field crops. This soil should be prepared 
by plowing and harrowing to put it in fine tilth. The 
turf should be cut from a pure stand of old bluegrass sod, 
transferred to the prepared soil as soon as possible to 
prevent the drying out of the roots, laid closely and 
evenly and tramped or rolled firmly in place. The sod 
can be cut in squares and placed in piles or cut in strips 
and rolled up, these methods tending to prevent the 
exposure of the roots to the drying influence of the air. 
After the turf is placed, the lawn should be thoroughly 
v/et down. If all the conditions are favorable, this is the 
best and quickest way to get a good lawn. In practice 
it is not often that all these conditions are fulfilled. It is 
difficult to obtain a pure sod of bluegrass. If the soil is 
contaminated by weeds, these become troublesome and 
are not easily removed. If the sod contains few weeds 
but is a mixture of grasses, the resulting lawn will lack 
uniformity in color and texture. To those who are par- 
ticular in regard to the appearance of a lawn, these are 
serious objections. Because pure or unmixed sod of blue- 
grass is usually not available, turfing cannot be relied 
upon to produce the best lawn, and one must resort to 
seeding. 

If the soil is not fertile it must be put in proper condi- 
tion by the addition of fertilizer. Good well-rotted barn- 



62 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

yard manure free from weed seed is the best fertilizer 
but is not always obtainable. This should be well in- 
corporated with the soil. In the absence of barnyard 
manure, artificial fertilizer may be used. Those pre- 
paring a lawn are not likely to know what ingredients are 
lacking in the soil, hence it is best to use a complete 
fertilizer. The amount necessary depends upon the con- 
dition of the soil. Ordinarily one may count on using 
300 to 400 pounds per acre or approximately 2 to 3 
pounds per square rod. If the soil is lacking in lime, 
this ingredient should be added in the form of slaked 
lime, land plaster or gypsum at the rate of 5 to 10 pounds 
per square rod. 

Seeding should be done eatly in the spring. It is im- 
portant that the best seed be used. On account of the 
method of harvesting, the viability of bluegrass seed is 
likely to be rather low in the best quality; in a poor 
quality the seed may be almost worthless. The seed is 
sown at the rate of about 60 or even 100 pounds per 
acre or about 1/2 pound per square rod. It is a favorite 
practice in some localities to sow the seed upon the late 
snow and allow it to sink into the soil as the snow melts. 
Some authorities recommend sowing the seed with some 
grain such as oats or rye. The grain germinates first 
and acts as a nurse crop. Later the grain is rriowed off. 
Usually, however, better results are obtained by sowing 
the grass seed alone. 

The directions above given apply to the production of 
a bluegrass lawn of uniform texture and color. If uni- 
formity in these respects is not required, and the condi- 
tion of fertility and tilth have not been fully met, it will 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 63 

be advisable to sow a mixture of grasses, such as blue- 
grass, perennial and Italian rye grass, carpet bent, and 
some of the small fescue grasses. The result will lack 
in uniformity but there may be a gain in vigor and 
continuity of soil cover. 

In either turfing or seeding, the lawn should be watered 
if the rainfall is not sufifiicient in amount or frequency. 
It is best to wet the soil thoroughly at intervals of a few 
days, rather than to sprinkle lightly every day. Water- 
ing is most efficient after the heat of the day has past, 
as the application of water during the middle of the day 
may result in scalding the foliage. 

The practice of attempting to establish a lawn upon 
soil left from the excavation of a cellar or upon the refuse 
left from building operations cannot be too strongly 
condemned. If the lawn is started by seeding on such a 
foundation the result is likely to be a vigorous crop of 
weeds. If turfing is resorted to, the grass will decline as 
soon as the nourishment in the sod is exhausted. Sod 
used by builders and contracters is often obtained from a 
nearby vacant lot and contains in most cases many 
pestiferous weeds. Under such conditions no amount of 
faithful watering can correct the original evil. If there 
is a poor stand, it is best to plow up the ground and begin 
again. If the stand is good, the condition of the lawn 
can be maintained or even gradually improved by mow- 
ing, rolling and watering when water is needed. 

If a lawn is to be established on land about a dwelling 
and such land is covered by the clay from the excavation 
and by refuse from the building operations, it will be 
necessary to remove a portion of this sterile soil and fill 



64 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

in with good soil to the depth of one foot or, still better, 
two feet. This is necessary for good results whether 
the lawn is to be made by turfing or by sowing seed. 
If turfing is the method employed and the supply of good 
turf is limited, good results may be obtained by cutting 
the turf into small pieces and planting in the prepared 
soil at intervals of several inches. The pieces should be 
pressed firmly into the soil. Under favorable conditions, 
the grass will spread and cover the surface in a few weeks. 
Turfing with a continuous cover may be done at any 
time during the growing season. Turfing with cut 
pieces should be done not later than early fall in order 
to allow sufficient time before winter, to fill in the space 
between the pieces. Seeding should be done early in the 
spring or early in the fall. The latter is recommended 
for Maryland and vicinity. 

To produce a soft, even, elastic surface, a lawn should 
be frequently mowed. Rolling is also a great aid in this 
respect. If the mowing has been neglected and a tall 
growth of grass has resulted, this should not be cut very 
close the first time as the roots might be exposed to the 
influence of the hot sun. It is best to cease mowing in 
the fall before the winter's cold sets in, so that the roots 
may be protected by a moderate growth of foliage. 

The lawn should be top-dressed with well rotted 
manure in the winter or early spring. This treatment 
should be given each year or at longer intervals according 
to the requirements of the soil. In lime-poor soils, there 
should also be a dressing of lime at intervals, this to be 
applied in the winter. It is an excellent practice to 
graze sheep upon large lawns. This is good for the lawn 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 65 

and good for the sheep. The grazing, tramping and the 
deposit of manure are all a benefit to the lawn. 

If barnyard manure is not available, artificial fertilizer 
should be added when necessary to keep up the fertility 
of the soil. Bone meal, woodashes, and various pre- 
pared complete fertilizers can be used. 

Lawn Weeds 

Under favorable conditions of soil, climate and treat- 
ment a bluegrass lawn should hold its own against weeds. 
But if conditions are not of the best, a lawn becomes 
contaminated with weeds. These impair the appearance 
of the lawn in two ways. The uniformity of texture and 
color is destroyed, and, in the case of annual weeds that 
die off in summer and fall, unsightly bare spots are 
developed. Certain annual weeds may gain a foothold 
in small open spaces between the tufts of bluegrass and 
gradually crowd out the latter. These interlopers are 
not noticed at first but their presence is evident later, 
especially in the latter part of the season when they turn 
brown and finally shrivel and die. Weeds should be 
removed as thoroughly as possible or they will gain the 
upper hand. The commonest of the annual weeds in 
the region where bluegrass is grown are crab grass and 
annual bluegrass. Crab grass soon makes its presence 
known by the purplish color of the foliage. Annual 
bluegrass is more deceiving because in its early stages 
it is a pleasing green but lighter in color than the blue- 
grass. 

Perennial weeds are more difficult to eradicate. Some 
of the troublesome perennials in the region under con- 



66 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

sideration are dandelion, wild onion and plantain. If 
weeds become numerous, it is best to plow up the lawn 
and begin over. The deficiencies in the soil can then be 
remedied and the weeds prevented from getting a start. 

Bluegrass Seed 

Commercial bluegrass seed comes mostly from a rather 
limited area in Kentucky. The chief producing counties 
are Bourbon, Fayette and Clark. These counties are in 
the famous bluegrass region south of Cincinnati. Smaller 
quantities are harvested in other parts of the state espe- 
cially in the counties to the west of those mentioned. 
Another but less important area is found in northern 
Missouri and southern Iowa. 

The seed is harvested by stripping the heads, a good 
yield being 20 to 25 bushels per acre. Fields of blue- 
grass can be grazed by cattle up to about two weeks of 
harvest with little detriment to the seed crop, but 
horses reduce the production as they eat the heads. 

The seed in the regions mentioned is harvested mostly 
in early June. On the larger farms, horse-drawn 
strippers are used which pull the spikelets from the 
stalks. On small fields hand strippers are used. The 
seed, which contains much chaff and pieces of leaves and 
stems, is piled in ricks either in the open or in sheds. 
The ricks are turned and stirred at frequent intervals 
till dry. Much care must be exercised to prevent the 
seed from heating, as this destroys its vitality if the 
process is allowed to go far. The cured seed is then sent 
to the cleaner. The cleaning machines remove the wool 
from the florets and separate the seed from the chaff. 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 67 

The export trade demands that fancy seed should weigh 
22 pounds per bushel. The seed on the domestic 
market is usually lighter than this and correspondingly 
poor. 

Bluegrass as a Weed 

In the alfalfa regions of the west, bluegrass often be- 
comes a troublesome weed in alfalfa fields. It thrives 
under irrigation and pushes in wherever the alfalfa is 
scanty, gradually crowding out the latter. The blue- 
grass does not grow tall enough to replace the alfalfa in 
the yield and there is a distinct loss. There is no 
remedy for a badly infested alfalfa field but to plow it 
up and start anew. 

Description 

A perennial grass, usually i to 2 feet tall, but under 
favorable conditions 3 or even 4 feet tall, producing 
slender creeping rootstocks sending up new shoots at 
intervals, the mass of rootstocks finally forming a firm 
sod. The stems erect, usually somewhat tufted, smooth, 
round or very slightly flattened (this noticeable by rolling 
between thumb and finger). The leaves mostly at the 
base of the stem. Sheaths smooth, sometimes some- 
what keeled or angled along the back, the lower short, 
but the uppermost long. Ligule short and very blunt, 
thin, about i mm. long, that of the sterile shoots shorter 
and that of the uppermost stem leaf longer. Blades 
narrow, those of the basal cluster long and slender, 
several inches or even a foot long, usually not over 4 mm. 
wide, flat of folded, a cross section thus V-shaped, the 
tip suddenly narrowed into a boat-shaped point, the 
6 



68 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



uppermost blade i to 3 inches long, appressed to the 
stem, slightly roughened on the edges. Inflorescence a 
pyramidal panicle 3 to 6 inches long, the branches loosely 




5. Kentucky Bluegrass. A single head or panicle. 



spreading, the lower in a whorl of usually 5, the others 
clustered or scattered, all of them slender and somewhat 
flexuous, roughened, naked at base, the five in the lower 
whorl of unequal length, one being long, two shorter and 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 69 

two still shorter. Spikelets clustered toward the end and 
upper half of the branches. 

The color of the foliage is dark green rather than blue 
green as the name would indicate. In moist, shady 
places the leaves often become splotched with a white 
powder due to the presence of a fungus called powdery 
mildew. 

The flowering period is May to June according to the 
latitude. 

Details of the Spikelet.* — Spikelet ovate or lanceolate, 
flattened, 3 to 5-flowered, sometimes with more flowers, 
4 to 6 mm. long. Glumes acute, smooth, about half as 
long as the spikelet, the first i-nerved, the second 3- 
nerved. At maturity the florets separate from each 
other and from the glumes. Florets acute, 5-nerved, 
the apex thin and papery, often purple-tinged, the mid- 
nerve and (Outer pair of nerves minutely hairy, the base 
of the floret with a tuft of fine cobwebby hairs. These 
florets form what is known commercially as the seed, 
though as in most grasses the real seed is inside of 
these. 

Common Names. — Bluegrass, in order to distinguish 
it from other species of the genus, that is, from other 
bluegrasses, is called Kentucky bluegrass, this name 
having come into use because of the famous bluegrass 
pastures of Kentucky. In the northern portion of its 
range this grass is usually known as June grass. Another 
name sometimes heard or sometimes seen in books is 
spear grass. In England, it usually goes under the 
scarcely distinctive name of meadow grass. 

* See page 49. 



70 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Botanical Name. — Poa pratensis L. The genus Poa 
includes the species of bluegrass of which there are about 
lOO, found in all the cooler parts of the world. Only a 
few of these have been brought into cultivation, the 
species under consideration being by far the most im- 
portant. Poa is a word used by the ancient Greeks for 
grass in general, but Linnaeus adopted the name for the 
genus as now understood. The term pratensis means 
growing in meadows. 

BERMUDA GRASS 

Bermuda grass is the most important pasture grass of 
the Southern States. It is a native of the warmer parts 
of the Eastern Hemisphere, but was early introduced 
into America and is now widely distributed in tropical 
America and extends well northward into the warmer 
temperate zone, being hardy as far north as Washington, 
D. C, and southern Kansas. Bermuda grass thrives on 
the open uplands and is the only grass now in use that 
gives summer pasturage in the region mentioned. In 
moist valleys or in the low land along the coast, other 
grasses thrive and dispute its dominance. Except on 
alluvial bottom land it does not grow rank enough for 
hay and in such locations other grasses may give better 
results. Except in the extreme South, Bermuda at least 
partially suspends growth during the winter months. 
Hence it is supplemented by those grasses that furnish 
winter pasturage. It forms a close sod by means of its 
rootstocks and stolons, a habit which especially adapts it 
to lawns. Throughout the Southern States it is the 
only grass that can be recommended for lawns, except in 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 7 1 

alluvial land along the Coast where carpet grass and 
St. Augustine grass are used. 

Bermuda grass, because of its abundant creeping root- 
stocks, is very aggressive. It freely occupies open 
ground where it forms strong vigorous rootstocks as 
thick as a pencil, that penetrate in all directions. For 
this reason, it is difficult to eradicate and becomes a 
pestiferous weed. This form is often called wire grass 
and it is sometimes difficult to convince farmers and 
planters that this coarse aggressive weed is the same 
as the fine-leaved Bermuda. But the two forms are the 
same species, the difference in aspect being due to the 
different conditions under which they grow or to different 
strains of the species. 

Bermuda does not grow well with other grasses, but 
may be combined with Japan clover, bur clover, black 
medick, or sweet clover. 

Bermuda as a Pasture Grass 

Bermuda pasture may be established by sowing the 
seed or by planting cuttings. For seeding, it is necessary 
to prepare the soil carefully as the seed is very small. 
The seed. is sown in early spring at the rate of about 
6 to 8 pounds per acre and rolled in, unless sown just 
before a rain when the rolling may be omitted. In the 
Gulf States it is recommended that Bermuda be com- 
bined with bur clover or with Japan clover. The pastur- 
age is more nutritious and the grazing may be extended 
through the entire season. The seed upon the market 
has been mostly imported from Australia, but much is 
now obtained from southern California and Arizona. 



']2 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Bermuda pasture, when not combined with other plants, 
should furnish grazing from May to November. A 
Bermuda pasture may become sod bound in a few years, 
'in which case it is best to plow it up and harrow it in the 
spring. The rootstocks make a new start and soon 
occupy the soil. Under favorable conditions, an acre of 
Bermuda pasture should support two cows for eight 
months. 

As the seed of Bermuda is high priced, pastures are 
frequently started from cuttings. The cuttings are ob- 
tained by chopping sod into small pieces. These pieces 
may be planted in furrows, the soil being turned back 
over them, not covering them more than 2 inches, or 
the pieces may be forced into soft soil by stepping on 
them. The pieces may be planted two feet apart each 
way, so easily can Bermuda be started that the distance 
apart of the planting is not very material. If large 
quantities of cuttings are wanted, a field of the grass may 
be plowed and the roots harrowed into windrows for use. 
A carelessly cultivated corn or cotton field, if infested 
with Bermuda, may be so completely filled in a season 
that it is ready for pasture the following year. 

Bermuda for Lawns 

Bermuda has all the desirable qualities of a lawn grass 
except that of holding its color during the winter. The 
color in summer is a light green which, to some, is not 
so pleasing as the dark green of bluegrass. But at the 
approach of cold weather it turns browji or tawny and 
does not become green again until rather late in the 
spring. Nevertheless, it is the best lawn grass, for the 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 73 

South, of any now in cultivation, except on mucky soil 
along the coast where carpet grass and St. Augustine 
grass may be used. Both these grasses are much coarser 
than Bermuda and do not produce a surface so pleasing 
in texture. 

St. Lucie grass is a form of Bermuda especially adapted 
for lawns. It is somewhat finer in texture and the pro- 
pagating stems are more upon the surface. This form 
is much used in Florida. Giant Bermuda is a rank- 
growing form producing stems two feet or more in 
height, and is adapted to rich moist soils. 

A lawn may be started by transplanting sod or by 
sowing the seed. If sod is used, care should be taken to 
select a pure stand of a fine-textured strain. If seed is 
used, the soil should be carefully prepared, pulverized 
and leveled. To insure an even stand, the seed should 
be sown evenly and rather thickly. Usually under favor- 
able conditions, the Bermuda will soon completely occupy 
the soil. If necessary, the lawn should be watered and 
the weeds removed. Like all lawns it is improved by 
mowing and rolling. 

Methods of Eradication 

The ease with which Bermuda becomes established, 
and the aggressiveness with which it spreads, render it a 
troublesome weed in cultivated soil, and make it difficult 
to eradicate when it has once occupied the soil. Methods 
of eradication depend upon the fact that it does not 
thrive in the shade. Therefore the easiest and quickest 
method is to smother it with some quick-growing crop. 
A very good way to convert Bermuda pasture or meadow 



74 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



into land fit for a cultivated crop such as corn or cotton, 

is to plow in the fall and 
sow thickly to grain. After 
the grain is harvested, 
plow the land immediately 
and plant thickly to cow- 
peas. If the cowpeas are 
planted in rows and culti- 
vated till the vines meet, 
the ground will be shaded 
and the Bermuda smoth- 
ered out. Usually one sea- 
son of this treatment is 
sufficient if the grain and 
peas have made a good 
growth. Some roots of Ber- 
muda may remain alive 
and the field will in time 
become infested with Be'r- 
muda and can then be used 
for pasture. In this way 
there is a favorable rota- 
tion of crops. 

Description 

■ A low perennial, exten- 
sively spreading by creeping 
stems, those below ground 
called roots tocks, those 
above ground called stolons ; 
flowering stems in open ground only a few inches high 




6. Bermuda Grass. A plant 
showing the creeping base, and a 
fertile stem with a cluster of five 
flower spikes. 



THE THREE LEADING FORAGE GRASSES 75 

but in alluvial soil or in the shade, as much as 2 feet 
tall, erect or decumbent at base; sheaths smooth, com- 
pressed, keeled, bearing a tuft of hairs on each side 
at the summit; blades fiat, 1/2 to 2 inches long, or on 
sterile shoots, longer, somewhat roughened, especially 
on the margin, sharp-pointed; ligule a very short mem- 
brane, hairy on the edge; inflorescence consisting of 3 to 
6 slender spikes, i or 2 inches long, all closely clustered 
at the summit of the stems, pubescent or fuzzy at the 
base; axis of the spike 1/3 to 1/2 mm. wide, the spike- 
lets closely arranged along one side. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelets i -flowered, com- 
pressed, about 2 mm. long, tawny green or purplish; 
glumes two, narrow, pointed, scabrous on the keel, 
shorter than the spikelet; lemma boat-shaped, pubescent 
on the margins and often on the keel. 

Common Names. — Bermuda grass is the most widely 
used name in this country. In the southwestern states, 
it is known as devil grass, and the weedy form in the 
southern states is called wire grass, or occasionally 
scutch grass. It was probably introduced from the 
Bermuda Islands, where, however it is not native. Its 
native country is the Mediterranean region and southern 
Asia. In the West Indies, at least in the English islands, 
it is usually known as Bahama grass. In Cuba and other 
Spanish countries it is known as grama, which means 
grass, or hierba fina, which means fine grass, hierba del 
prado, which means park grass and pato de gallina, 
which means chicken-foot. The German and French 
names for the grass mean dog's-tooth. In India, it is 
called sacred grass. In Australia, it is called couch or 



76 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Indian couch. In the Hawaiian Islands, it is called 
manienie (ma-ne-a-ne-a) . 

Botanical Name. — Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze; 
Cynodon Dactylon Pers.; Panicum Dactylon L. There 
is but one common species of the genus and this is 
widely distributed in the warm regions of both hemis- 
pheres. The name Capriola comes from a Latin word for 
goat, probably given because goats feed on the grass. 
The specific name Dactylon is a reference to the inflores- 
cence, from the Greek word for finger, the spikes spread- 
ing from one point like the fingers on the hand. The 
other generic name, Cynodon, in common use, means 
dog-tooth, given probably because of the old pointed 
sheaths on the stolons and rootstocks. The giant 
Bermuda is Capriola Dactylon var. maritima. 



CHAPTER VII 

OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 

In addition to the grasses already considered, there are 
several that are important in certain areas and for certain 
purposes, though when compared with the three leading 
species they are decidedly secondary, both as to quantity 
and value. 

REDTOP 

Next to timothy, redtop is probably the rnost impor- 
tant meadow grass in the humid region, that is, in broad 
terms, the timothy region. It is used also for pasture, 
for which purpose it ranks next to bluegrass. Redtop 
does not compete with timothy or with bluegrass but 
supplements them, for it thrives in soils too moist for 
timothy or in lime-poor soils where bluegrass is not at 
its best. Hence it is that redtop is used alone or in 
mixtures for moist soil, or, on the other hand, for com- 
paratively dry but sterile soil, or for the so-called acid 
soils that are poor in lime. Redtop is grown especially 
in New England, the North Atlantic States and in moist 
or lime-poor soils elsewhere, especially in Missouri and 
southern Illinois. It becomes more important than 
timothy in the belt just south of the timothy region 
from Arkansas and northern Louisiana, through northern 
Mississippi and northern Alabama to North Carolina. 
In this belt it is frequently called Herd's grass. 

77 



78 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



Seed. — The seed of redtop is 
usually mixed with much chaff, 
that is, the glumes from which 
the florets have fallen. The re- 
cleaned seed contains a much 
larger proportion of 
seed and is correspond- 
ingly heavier. Ordi- 
nary redtop seed weighs 
10 to 12 pounds per 
bushel. 

If redtop is used alone 
for meadow or pasture, 
12 to 1 8 pounds of re- 
cleaned seed should be 
sown per acre. If ordi- 
nary seed is used the 
amount must be in- 
creased to 50 or 60 
pounds per acre. It 
is much more satis- 
factory to use recleaned seed. 
If redtop is used in a mixture, 
as is more often the case, the 
amount is reduced, often to 
only I or 2 pounds of the re- 
cleaned 
seed per 
acre. 

7. Redtop. A single head or panicle, and a base showing the 
creeping rootstocks by which the grass spreads. 




OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 79 

Description. — An erect perennial, i to 3 feet tall, or 
sometimes taller in favorable localities, the base often 
decumbent, producing creeping rootstocks; sheaths 
smooth; blades flat, rough on both surfaces, mostly 4 to 
8 inches long, narrowed into a long sharp point, the 
ligule thin, pointed, as much as 6 mm. long (1/4 inch); 
panicle usually 4 to 8 inches long, broadest near the 
bottom and narrowing toward the top, pale or often 
purplish or brownish, the branches in whorls, horizontally 
spreading or somewhat ascending, some of the branches 
naked below, others shorter and flower-bearing mostly 
to the base, the upper branches scattered and more 
ascending, all rough to the touch. After flowering the 
panicle may partially close. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelets one-flowered, small, 
only 2 to 3 mm. long (2/25 to 3/25 inch); glumes 2, 
about equal, gradually narrowed to a sharp point, rough- 
ened on the keel; lemma a little shorter than the glumes, 
thin and transparent, rather blunt; palea half to two- 
thirds as long as the lemma and like it in texture. 

Common Names. — The usual name is redtop but it is 
called in some localities, especially in Pennsylvania and 
the Southern States, Herd's grass. The latter name is 
sometimes applied to timothy and should, for the sake 
of precision, be discarded. The name redtop is char- 
acteristic because in the cultivated form, the panicle is 
usually purplish or brownish at flowering time though it 
may become pale or faded at maturity. 

Botanical Name. — Agrostis palustris Huds. The ge- 
nus Agrostis includes a large number of species (about 
100) found in temperate and cool regions all over the 



80 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

world. There are 25 species in the United States espe- 
cially in our western mountains. Most of the species are 
good forage grasses and constitute a considerable portion 
of the native forage of mountain meadows. The name 
Agrostis is derived from a Greek word meaning field 
and was used by the Greeks for a kind of grass. Lin- 
naeus applied the name to the genus above mentioned. 
The specific name palustris means swampy, referring to 
the fact that it grows in moist soil. Another name that 
has been commonly applied to redtop is Agrostis alba. 

ORCHARD GRASS 

Compared with timothy, orchard grass is unimportant, 
but among the grasses of minor importance it stands in 
the front rank. It is used for both hay and pasture in 
the humid region, especially from Virginia and Kentucky 
to northern Alabama. Orchard grass has many good 
qualities, among which are yield, palatability, early 
starting of growth in the spring, and ability to remain 
green during hot summers and well into the fall. Its 
chief drawback is the habit of growing in tussocks which 
interferes with its use as a meadow grass. The high cost 
of the seed also militates against its use, though the cost 
would decrease if the demand called for a greater supply, 
because good seed is easily produced. Timothy has such 
a dominating position in the hay markets of the country 
that orchard grass and other good grasses cannot com- 
pete with it, a condition which discourages its production 
for hay to be sold. The quality of orchard grass suffers 
more than does that of timothy by remaining after 
flowering before being cut. For this reason, orchard 



OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 8 1 

grass has not been grown much where timothy is at its 
best, but finds favor along the southern border of the 
timothy region where the summers are long and dry. 
It withstands drouth rather better than does timothy and 
hence can be used somewhat west of the region where 
timothy thrives. When sown alone, 20 to 25 pounds of 
good seed per acre should be used. By mixing orchard 
grass with some other grass, such as meadow fescue, a 
smoother surface is produced than by using the former 
alone. 

Orchard grass was brought into cultivation about the 
middle of the eighteenth century. It is one of the im- 
portant meadow grasses of Europe. Beal states that it 
did not attract much attention in England until sent 
back there from Virginia in 1764. 

The seed of orchard grass of American origin is mostly 
grown in the vicinity of Louisville, Kentucky. Much 
seed is imported from New Zealand. 

Description. — ^An erect perennial, 2 to 4 feet, growing 
in tussocks, without rootstocks; sheaths flattened and 
somewhat keeled, smooth or roughened, closed part way 
or nearly all the way, the ligule prominent, thin and 
papery, the uppermost about one- third of an inch long; 
blades flat, about one-third of an inch wide, rough on 
both surfaces, tapering into a slender point; panicle 3 to 
6 inches long, the few branches spreading at flowering 
time, afterwards closed, singly disposed, naked below, 
bearing towards the ends a few one-sided clusters of 
spikelets, the clusters about 1/2 inch wide. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelet 3 or 4-flowered, 
compressed, ajbout one- third inch long; firgt glume 



82 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



I -nerved, acute, the second 3-nerved and acuminate, a 
line of minute bristles along the keel; lemmas 5-nerved, 
bristly along the keel, extending into a short awn at the 
apex. 




8. Orchard Grass. Two heads or panicles, one in flower, the 
branches spreading, the other in fruit or seed, showing how the 
branches close up after flowering. 



Common Names. — In this country this grass is uni- 
formly known as orchard grass, probably because in the 



OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 83 

early days it was sown in orchards. In England, it is 
called cock's-foot, in allusion to the spreading branches 
of the inflorescence when in flower. 

Botanical Name. — Dactylis glomerata L. The generic 
name Dactylis is derived from a Greek word meaning 
finger in allusion to the finger-like branches of the in- 
florescence. The specific name glomerata, clustered, 
refers to the clusters of spikelets at the ends of the 

branches. 

MEADOW FESCUE 

Like orchard grass, meadow fescue holds a secondary 
though not unimportant place in American agriculture. 
It has many good qualities but has not been able to 
compete with timothy. The chief reason for this is 
probably the relatively high cost and poor quality of the 
seed. Furthermore, the yield is usually not so high as 
that of timothy. Meadow fescue however is a nutri- 
tious and palatable grass and makes an excellent quality 
of hay. It is grown for both hay and pasture throughout 
the timothy region but nowhere abundantly. It has 
become a rather important grass in the eastern portion 
of the Great Plains region, especially in eastern Kansas. 
Meadow fescue is to be recommended in combination 
with other grasses, especially where used for pasture. 
In eastern Kansas it is used to advantage in combination 
with orchard grass. For meadow, it makes a good filler 
with orchard grass, filling in the spaces between the 
tussocks of the latter, thus giving a better basis for a 
mowing machine. In the region mentioned, the combi- 
nation has the advantage over timothy of being more 
drouth resistant and can therefore be used somewhat 
7 



/ 



84 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



west of the area best suited to timothy. Meadow fescue 
is being used to some extent also in 
the Pacific Northwest. 

Most of the seed grown in this 
country is produced in southeast- 
ern Kansas. 

Description. — A rather tall per- 
ennial, sometimes with short root- 
stocks; stems erect, i to 4 feet 
tall, usually 2 to 3 feet; sheaths 
smooth; blades fiat, 1/12 to 1/5 
inch wide, rough on the upper sur- 
face; panicle erect, nodding at the 
apex, narrow but spreading in 
flower, 4 to 8 inches long, the 
branches mostly singly disposed, 
bearing few rather large spikelets. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spike- 
lets several-iiowered, oblong, about 
1/2 inch long, smooth and green, 
the florets usually 7 or 8; glumes 
lanceolate, somewhat unequal, 
about half as long as the first 
floret; lemmas rounded on the 
back, finely nerved, scarious at 
the acute apex. 

Common Names. — Meadow 
fescue is the recognized name for 
the species. The taller form, as 
described under the paragraph on 
botanical names, is called tall fescue. In some parts of 




9. Meadow Fescue. A 
single head or panicle. 



OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 85 

the country, especially in eastern Kansas, the species 
is known as English bluegrass. This is an unfortunate 
application of the name as it is more properly applied 
to Poa compressa, and because the species in question 
does not belong to the bluegrass group. 

Botanical Name. — Festuca elatior L. Festuca is an 
old Latin name applied to a kind of grass. The specific 
name, meaning taller, refers to its comparative height^ 
the plant being taller than the other species described 
at the same time. The species has also been known as 
Festuca pratensis Huds. The two names, however, apply 
to the same form. As mentioned elsewhere, there are 
two forms of the species, one called meadow fescue as 
already described. The other is called tall fescue. This 
second form is more robust and has a larger, more open 
panicle. Some botanists have applied the name Festuca 
pratensis to the first and F. pratensis var. elatior, or F. 
elatior to the second. The original descriptions of 
F. elatior and F. pratensis apply to the same form, the 
taller form not having received a distinct botanical name. 
The differences between the forms are agricultural rather 
than botanical. 

JOHNSON GRASS 

Johnson grass is one of the most important hay- 
grasses for the Southern States. It is palatable, nutri- 
tious, a vigorous grower and yields large crops. It 
thrives best on alluvial bottoms and is especially adapted 
to the black prairie soils of Alabama and Texas. John- 
son grass is somewhat tender and will not stand the cold 
winters of the North but can be grown successfully 
throughout the southern humid region, that is, the 



86 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Cotton Belt. While best adapted to meadows, it can 
be used for pasture but does not well withstand the 
trampling of stock. Furthermore there has been some 
trouble from the poisoning of stock as the plants under 
certain conditions may produce hydrocyanic acid as do 
sorghum and its allies. Johnson grass is closely related 
to the sorghums, belonging to the same genus, hence 
might be expected to produce the same poison. 

Notwithstanding the fact that Johnson grass gives 
excellent results as a meadow grass, it becomes under 
certain conditions an extremely pestiferous weed. This 
is due to its aggressiveness. After once occupying a 
field, it is eradicated with great difficulty. For this 
reason, many farmers hesitate to plant it or allow it to 
obtain a foothold upon their places. In another para- 
graph will be given directions for eradicating this grass 
when a meadow is needed for other purposes. 

Eradication of Johnson Grass. — The eradication of 
Johnson grass depends upon suppressing the growth of 
the rootstocks.* Where cultural methods can be used 
it is recommended that the infested field be turned into a 
meadow or pasture and that the grass be kept closely 
cropped, either by grazing animals upon it or by mowing 
it for one or more seasons. If the plants are not allowed 
to blossom the rootstock development is reduced and 
what is produced remains near the surface. After the 
sod has remained undisturbed for a year the soil is 
plowed shallow, thus throwing up most of the rootstocks. 

* A full account of the experiments with Johnson grass and the 
different methods tried in Texas for its eradication will be found in 
Farmers' Bulletin 279 (U. S. Dept. Agr.). 



OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 87 

The field is then planted in a cultivated crop. This 
crop should be given extra cultivation and stray plants 
of Johnson grass pulled up by hand when it heads out. 

In regions where Johnson grass is common it may be 
rotated with grain. The sod is broken in the late summer 
and oats or other small grain sown in the early fall. 
After the grain is harvested in the spring the grass is 
allowed to grow and will produce two or sometimes three 
crops of hay. In the late summer the land is again 
broken for the small grain. In this way a fair crop of 
grain is secured in addition to a good hay crop. 

Description. — Stems rather stout, erect, 3 to 5 feet 
tall, producing strong scaly rootstocks; sheaths smooth; 
blades flat, smooth, roughened on the edges, i to 3 feet 
long, 1/4 to 1/2 inch wide, tapering to a fine point, the 
white midrib conspicuous; panicle 6 inches to 2 feet 
long, large and open like oats or sorghum, usually 
purplish, the branches 2 to 4 together, naked below; 
spikelets somewhat crowded along the upper half or two- 
thirds of the branches. The blades and sheaths are 
often splashed with purple as in sorghum, this being due 
to a bacterial disease. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelets in pairs or the 
terminal in 3's, one sessile and fertile, the other i or 2 
pediceled and staminate. Fertile spikelet about 5 mm. 
long, dorsally flattened, elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, in- 
distinctly nerved, firm and coriaceous, often bearing a 
twisted and bent awn about as long as or a little longer 
than the spikelet, at first pubescent but later becoming 
smooth and shining on the exposed parts. Staminate 
spikelets more slender, slightly longer than the fertile, 



88 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




10. Johnson Grass. A flower head or panicle, and a base showing 
the strong creeping rootstocks by which the grass spreads and which 
render it such an aggressive weed. 



OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 89 

distinctly nerved, membranaceous, the pedicel about 
half as long as the fertile spikelet, ciliate. 

When threshed, the fertile spikelet or seed loses its 
awn and the staminate spikelets, and disarticulates from 
the pedicel but retains the i or 2 pedicels of the staminate 
spikelet which stand behind the seed. 

Common Name. — Johnson grass is universally used in 
the United States for this species, being one of the few 
species to which but one common name has been applied. 
In Cuba it is called hierba de Don Carlos. 

Botanical Name. — Holcus halepensis L. The name 
Holcus was originally applied to sorghum and its allies. 
Linnaeus used this name, but included in the genus 
several diverse species which have since been transferred 
to other genera. The specific name refers to the town 
of Aleppo in Syria. The species has been referred to 
Andropogon as A. halepensis Brot., and has also been 
called Sorghum halepense Pers. 

BROME GRASS 

This grass was introduced into the agriculture of the 
United States and grown on a commercial scale in the 
latter part of the last century, mostly since 1890. The 
grass is a native of Europe and was introduced into 
cultivation there a few years before it came into notice 
here. Brome grass has proved of value in the region 
from northern Kansas to western Minnesota and west- 
ward to eastern Washington. It is more drouth re- 
sistant than the ordinary eastern meadow grasses and 
consequently fits into the agriculture of the region 
mentioned, where the conditions are too severe for 



90 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



timothy and clover. In many parts of the humid region 
especially in Wisconsin and from 
Ohio to Virginia brome grass may 
be grown but there it must com- 
pete with timothy which with suffi- 
cient moisture gives a greater yield. 
In the more arid districts especi- 
ally toward the south, brome grass 
does not do well except when irri- 
gated. Under irrigation, however, 
other grasses are usually more 
satisfactory. It is, therefore, of 
chief importance in the triangular 
region embracing the northern por- 
tion of the Great Plains and ex- 
tending further west along the 
northern border of the United 
States. 

Brome grass can be used for 
meadow or for pasture. The seed 
may be sown in the spring or in 
the fall, or at any time between 
when the conditions are favorable. 
It is especially valuable for pas- 
ture, the vigorous roots tocks form- 
ing a firm sod. In a few years 
II. Brome Grass. A these rootstocks occupy the soil 

head or panicle and a ^^ g^ch an extent that it often be- 

single spikelet enlarged. 

comes necessary to loosen up the 

ground by disking, or it may be advisable to plow up 

and reseed. 




OTHER IMPORTANT FORAGE GRASSES 9 1 

The seed is light and chaffy, weighing 14 pounds to 
the bushel. It is usually sown broadcast at the rate of 
20 pounds per acre. 

Description. — A hardy smooth erect perennial, usually 
2 or 3 feet tall, producing strong creeping rootstocks. 
Blades flat, 1/5 to 1/3 inch wide, somewhat roughened, 
bearing at the base a pair of minute auricles. Panicles 
or flower heads 4 to 6 inches long, somewhat open and 
spreading, the branches naked below, the lower in 
clusters or fascicles. 

Details of the Spikelet. — Spikelets about an inch long, 
brown or purplish, 8 to lo-flowered, slightly flattened; 
first glume narrow, acute, i -nerved, 5 mm. long, the 
second broader and longer, obtuse, 3-nerved; lemma 5 to 
7-nerved, the nerves scabrous, the apex awnless or with a 
very short awn. 

Common Names. — The name brome is taken from 
Bromus, the botanical name of the genus. Other names 
applied occasionally to the species are: awnless brome 
grass, because the spikelets are nearly or quite awnless, 
while many species of the genus are awned; Hungarian 
brome grass, because it was grown in Hungary whence 
seed was obtained for trial in this country; smooth 
brome grass, because it is not hairy. Many farmers 
know it by its botanical name, Bromus inermis. 

Botanical Name. — Bromus inermis Leyss. The gen- 
eric name is from the Greek name for food, and was 
applied by the Greeks to oats. 

Linnaeus gave the name to a group of grasses now 
known to include numerous species, both native and 
foreign. The specific name, meaning unarmed, refers 
to the absence of awns. 



CHAPTER VIII 

GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 

There are several kinds of grasses that are mentioned 
in books on forage plants and in seed catalogues, which 
_^re of minor importance either because of the restricted 
area in which they may be grown or because of the limited 
use to which they are put. While these grasses are of 
little importance commercially, it is necessary that the 
farmer should be acquainted with them in order that 
he may not be misled by the too sanguine opinion of the 
writers in the farm journals, or by the flamboyant 
advertisements in seed catalogues. 

RHODE ISLAND BENT AND CARPET BENT 

These two grasses are closely related to redtop but are 
more delicate, the leaves being finer, the stems thinner 
and not so tall, and the panicle smaller and more open. 
Both grasses are suited to lawns and golf courses, as 
they produce a fine close turf. They do not produce 
rootstocks as does bluegrass but the stems are creeping 
at the base, especially those of carpet bent. 

The bent grasses thrive on lime-poor soils in New 
England and many parts of the North and Middle 
Atlantic States, in fact, in about the same region that is 
favorable for redtop. 

The method of preparation of a lawn with these grasses 
is similar to that given under bluegrass. Success de- 

92 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 93 

pends much upon using seed of good quality. From 60 
to 100 pounds of seed should be used per acre. The 
seed should be examined and the proportion of seed and 
chaff noted. If the proportion of chaff is large, the 
amount of seed used should be increased. In the south- 
ern portion of the range, the seeding should be done in 
the early fall; in the north, it should be done in the 
spring. 

Rhode Island bent is a common and well-established 
grass in New England and in many places along the coast 
to the south. The seed is now rarely to be found upon 
the market, but the U. S. Department of Agriculture is 
encouraging its production and use. The seed that is 
now sold by seedsmen under the name of Rhode Island 
bent is imported from South Germany and consists 
mostly of carpet bent mixed with varying quantities 
of another kind of bent grass called velvet bent. The 
presence of velvet bent in samples of Rhode Island bent 
shows that it comes from Germany. This South German 
mixed bent is a satisfactory grass for lawns. Not infre- 
quently seedsmen have sold ordinary redtop under the 
name of Rhode Island bent. As redtop is not well 
suited to lawns the substitution is harmful. 

Description. — Rhode Island bent is closely related to 
redtop from which it differs in being lower and more 
delicate, with a smaller open rather few-flowered panicle. 
The stems are usually only about a foot high and the 
blades are narrower than those of redtop. An important 
difference is in the shape of the ligule. In redtop, the 
ligule is acute, as much as 1/4 inch long. In Rhode 
Island bent the ligule is blunt, often not more than 1/12 



94 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



inch long. The stems may be erect at base or they may 
produce short stolons. The spikelets are about the same 
as in red top, but average smaller. 




12. Rhode Island Bent. A seed head or panicle. 

Botanical and Common Names. — Agrostis capillaris L., 
Rhode Island bent, is a close alley of redtop. The 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 95 

specific name means hairlike. The grass was so named 
because of the deHcate branches of the panicle. It has 
also bee'n called Agrostis vulgaris With., Agrostis alba var. 
vulgaris (With.) Thurb. and Agrostis tenuis Sibth. 
Carpet bent, the chief ingredient of South German 
mixed bent, is Agrostis stolonifera L. Velvet bent is 
Agrostis canina L. The seed of this is distinguished by 
the absence of a palea and the presence of an awn on the 
lemma. (See U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 692. The Agri- 
cultural species of Bent Grasses.) 

RYE GRASSES 

The two rye grasses may be considered together as 
they resemble each other closely, both botanically and 
agriculturally. English rye grass appears to be the first 
meadow or pasture grass brought into cultivation. 
Previous to this time, the latter part of the 17th century, 
only wild meadows and pastures were known, these re- 
newing and maintaining themselves spontaneously. 
Grasses were not sown, or if they sometimes were, it was 
a mixture gathered from the wild grasses. English rye 
grass is the first grass of which we have a record showing 
that it was cultivated as a distinct species, the seed being 
gathered and sown. The rye grasses, English and 
Italian, occupy a prominent place in European agricul- 
ture, having an importance far beyond that attained in 
this country. This difference is to be accounted for 
partly by the difference in climate and partly by the 
relatively higher cost and poorer quality of the seed in 
this country. Where timothy thrives, it cannot be dis- 
placed except by a grass distinctly better in some way. 



96 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

The rye grasses are more palatable than timothy or than 
almost any of our cultivated grasses, but the yield is 
not quite so good, and, at present, the seed is inferior in 
quality and higher in price. Our seed comes chiefly 
from Scotland and Ireland, and probably is not the best. 
The demand here has not been sufficient to induce the 
production of home grown seed. 

The rye grasses are of considerable importance in the 
humid. region of the Pacific Northwest where the climatic 
conditions are more nearly like those of Europe. They 
are used to a limited extent in the South for winter forage. 
Another use to which they are well adapted is that for 
lawns or public grounds and parks where a quick growth 
is required to cover the new soil. Rye grass is much 
used also as an ingredient in mixtures for lawns around 
residences. It gives a quick covering but is rather too 
coarse for use alone. As a lawn grass it is objectionable 
because it has no rootstocks nor stolons and hence does 
not form a compact sod; in a mixture, the bunches are 
large and the color different from other species, hence 
there is a lack of uniformity. 

There are two kinds of rye grass in use, perennial and 
Italian, differing slightly botanically and agriculturally. 
Both kinds are short-lived perennials, Italian rye grass 
being practically an annual, and should be so treated 
agriculturally. 

Over most of the region where the rye grasses are used, 
they are sown in the fall. In the South a good growth of 
winter pasture results. The seed weighs about 20 pounds 
to the bushel and should be sown at the rate of 2 to 3 
bushels per acre, or at a proportional rate, if used in a 
mixture. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 



97 



Description. — English rye grass is 
a short-lived perennial tufted glossy 
dark-green grass, with flowering stems 
I or 2 feet tall, narrow flat blades 
usually less than i/6 inch wide, and a 
long flat narrow flower head, consist- 
ing of many flat several-flowered 
spikelets arranged in 2 rows along a 
main axis, the whole head as much as 
a foot long. The spikelets are 1/3 to 
1/2 inch long and are placed edge- 
wise on the axis, alternating on oppo- 
site sides. Only the outer glume is 
present on the lateral spikelets. On 
the terminal spikelet both glumes are 
present. The leaves of rye grass 
have one peculiarity which distin- 
guishes it even when not in flower. 
At the base of the blade or the sum- 
mit of the sheath are two little claw- 
like appendages, one on each side. 
These appendages or auricles are 
formed also on rye, wheat, and barley 
but on none of the cultivated meadow 
grasses except the rye grasses and 
meadow fescue. 

Italian rye grass is distinguished 
from English rye grass chiefly by the 
presence of awns on the florets of 
the spikelets, these awns being as 
long as the florets or longer. In Eng- 



13. Italian Rye 
Grass. 



98 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

lish rye grass the florets are without awns or the awns 

are very short. 

Common Names. — EngHsh rye grass is also known 

as perennial rye grass. 

On the Pacific Coast, Italian rye grass is often known 

as Australian rye grass, as the seed was imported from 

Australia. 

The rye grasses are sometimes known as ray grasses. 

The name rye grass is a misnomer as the species are not 

closely related to rye botanically, nor 

do they resemble rye, except possibly 

in their early growth. In England 

the name darnel is used for English 

rye grass. 

Botanical Names. — English rye 

grass is Lolium perenne L. Lolium is 

14. P e r e n n i a 1 an old Latin name that was taken up 

Rye Grass. The Y,y Linnaeus and applied to this grass, 
spikelets without 1 • 1 

awfis or bristles Tne specific name means perennial, a 

name used by Linnaeus to distinguish 

this grass from an annual species described at the same 

time. 

Italian rye grass is Lolium muUifiorum Lam. This 

species was distinguished by Lamarck nearly half a 

century after the preceding species was named. The 

specific name, many-flowered, refers to the number of 

florets in the spikelet. Italian rye grass has also been 

known as L. italicum A. Br. Some botanists consider 

the two forms to be but varieties of a single species. The 

name then would be L. perenne var. multiflorum Parn. 

or L. perenne var. italicum Parn. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 99 

TALL OAT GRASS 

Tall oat grass is used in Europe as a constituent of 
meadows and pastures but in this country it is used to a 
very limited extent. It is adapted to the timothy region 
and is used in mixtures for meadows. Its chief draw- 
back is the high cost of the seed due chiefly to its poor 
seed habits. The seed does not all ripen at once and 
shatters readily so that only a small portion can be 
gathered at any one time. Furthermore, the forage 
from this grass is not very palatable to stock, at least 
not until they have become accustomed to it. Tall oat 
grass is not likely to compete with timothy in this 
country, but will be increasingly used in mixtures. 

Tall oat grass is a native of Europe and is found in this 
country occasionally in waste places and along roadsides 
in the humid region. 

Description. — A tall erect perennial, 3 to 4 feet high, 
with smooth sheaths, flat narrow blades not over 1/4 inch 
wide, rough on both surfaces, and a long narrow rather 
loose, pale or purplish, shining panicle, 6 to 10 inches 
long, the short branches in clusters. Spikelets 2-flow- 
ered, about 1/3 inch long, the first glume 1/2 as long, the 
second glume nearly as long as the spikelet, the first floret 
stamina te, bearing a bent awn from the back twice as 
long as the lemma, the second floret fertile, awnless. 

A variety of this, called bulbous oat grass is found occa- 
sionally as a weed in Virginia and North Carolina where 
it has recently been introduced from Europe. This has a 
series of beadlike joints at the base of the stems. 

Common and Botanical Names. — Tall oat is so named 
because of a fancied resemblance to oats. It is also 



100 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




15. Tall Oat Grass. A 
head or panicle in flower. 
At maturity the panicle con- 
tracts. 



called tall meadow oats, or tall 
meadow oat grass. Another 
name occasionally used is Ran- 
dall grass. 

The botanical name is Ar- 
rhenathenim elatius{h.) Beauv. 
The generic name is derived 
from two Greek words which 
mean masculine and awn, re- 
ferring to the awned staminate 
floret. The specific name 
means taller. Other names oc- 
casionally seen in seed cata- 
logues are Arrhenatherum ave- 
naceum and Avena elatior. 
The variety with bulbs is Ar~ 
rhenatherum elatius var, bidbo- 
sum (Presl) Koch. 

CANADA BLUEGRASS 

Canada bluegrass is used for 
pasture on sandy or sterile soil 
in the timothy area. On good 
limestone soil suited to the 
growth of Kentucky bluegrass, 
Canada bluegrass cannot com- 
pete with the former. Canada 
bluegrass is sometimes used for 
lawns as it forms a firm sod, 
but, except on sandy soil, is 
not so satisfactory as Ken- 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 



lOI 



tucky bluegrass. It may be used for hay, producing 

a good quality but a small yield. On 

the whole, Canada bluegrass is of no 

importance except under conditions 

not suited to Kentucky bluegrass. 

The seed is nearly all produced in 

the southeastern part of the province 

of Ontario west of Niagara Falls. 

Description. — The plants produce 
numerous tough creeping rootstocks 
which form a firm sod. The stems 
are not tufted but arise from ther oot- 
stocks singly. Stems usually about 
a foot high, distinctly flattened, 
the blades rather short and upright. 
Panicle smaller and narrower than 
that of Kentucky bluegrass. The 
florets (the seed of commerce) resem- 
ble those of that species and are used 
to adulterate its seed. The color of 
the plants of Canada bluegrass is 
distinctly bluish green as distinguished 
from the dark green of Kentucky 
bluegrass. 

Botanical and Common Names. — The botanical name 
is Poa compressa L. It belongs to the bluegrass genus 
as is indicated by the first part of the name. The specific 
name compressa (compressed) refers to the fiat stem. 

The recognized common name is Canada bluegrass or 
the variant Canadian bluegrass. Other names are Eng- 



i6. Canada Blue- 
grass. A flower 
head or panicle and 
a single leaf. 



102 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



lish bluegrass, wire-grass and flat-stem. The last name 
is much used in the mountains of West Virginia. The 
term wire-grass is not distinctive as it 
is used for several other species. 

Canada bluegrass is probably not 
a native of North America though it 
is now common in grassland, along 
roadsides, and in waste places 
throughout the Northern States and 
southern Canada. It is common in 
the cooler parts of Europe. 



SWEET VERNAL GRASS 

Sweet vernal grass is useless as a 
forage grass but is sometimes in- 
cluded in meadow mixtures to give 
a pleasant odor to the hay. It con- 
tains cumarin, a constituent found 
also in vanilla grass, which is also fra- 
grant, especially when the grass is 
dried. Sweet vernal is an erect pe- 
rennial, I or 2 feet high, with thin 
flat blades i to 3 inches long, and a 
dense spikelike bronze-green panicle 
I to 3 inches long, narrowed above 
and below, the short branches spread- 
ing in flower. 
The spikelets are 8 to 10 mm. long, lanceolate, acum- 
inate; glumes sparsely pilose, the first about half as long 
as the second; fertile lemma smooth and shining, much 
shorter than the glumes; standing on either side of the 



17. Sweet Vernal 
Grass. A single 
head or spike in 
flower. After flow- 
ering, the head 
closes up and be- 
comes more dense. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 



103 



fertile lemma are two sterile lem- 
mas about twice as long, one 
being short-awned, the other 
bearing a long twisted and bent 
awn from near its base. 

The botanical name is Anthox- 
anthum odoratum L. Sweet ver- 
nal is a native of Europe and is 
found growing as an escape from 
cultivation in the Eastern States. 
The generic name means yellow 
flower; the specific name refers 
to the odor. 

VELVET GRASS 

Velvet grass is occasionally 
used for meadows in the humid 
region but has little value except" 
on sterile or sandy soil. The hay 
is not relished by stock until 
they acquire a taste for it. On 
fertile soil it cannot compete 
with more valuable grasses, but 
on sandy soil it gives better re- 
turns than most other meadow 
grasses. The only part of the 
country where it becomes of im- 
portance is on the sandy land 
along the Columbia River in Ore- 
gon and Washington, and a few 
other places from Northern Cali- 




18. Velvet Grass. Ahead 
or dense panicle. After 
flowering, head closes up. 



104 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



fornia to British Columbia. In this region it is a weed 
and at times becomes a pest. Velvet grass has been long 
known in Europe where it is used in mix- 
tures. 

Velvet grass is an erect perennial, i to 3 
feet high, grayish velvety all over, with 
flat blades, 2 to 4 inches long, and an 
oblong condensed panicle, 2 to 4 inches 
long, open at flowering but contracted 
and almost spike-like at other 
times. The panicle is soft 
and pale or purplish in color. 
The spikelets are about 1/5 
inch long, with pubescent 
glumes longer than the 2 flor- 
ets, the upper of which bears 
on the back a hooked awn. 
Velvet grass is sometimes incor- 
rectly called mesquite. In England it 
has other names, such as meadow soft grass 
and Yorkshire fog, little used in this country. 
The botanical name is Notholcus lanatus (L.) 
Nash. It has also been called Holciis lanatush. 

ST. AUGUSTINE GRASS 

St. Augustine grass is much used as a 

. „ _, . lawn grass in alluvial or 

19. St. Augustine Grass. Ihe 

upper part of a plant showing mucky soil near the coast 
two seed heads or spikes. from North Carolina to 

Florida and Louisiana. It 
is a creeping perennial with flat stems, rather short. 




GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE I05 

abruptly pointed leaves and a flat spike in which the 
spikelets are imbedded. The flower stalks are usually 
only a few inches to a foot high. The foliage somewhat 
resembles that of carpet grass. To establish a lawn, 
the cuttings of the runners are set out. St. Augustine 
grass is a native of the Coast region of the warmer parts 
of America. The botanical name is Stenotaphrum secun- 
datum (Walt.) Kuntze. 

CARPET GRASS 

Carpet grass is used for pasture in the alluvial bottom- 
lands of the Southern States especially near the coast 
from Georgia and Florida to Louisiana. On dry sandy 
land or on the drier uplands it does not compete with 
Bermuda grass but attains its maximum growth on moist 
mucky or sandy soil along the Gulf Coast. 

Carpet grass is a creeping perennial forming long 
runners which throw up flowering stems 6 to 20 inches 
high. The blades are comparatively short, the margins 
parallel, the apex abruptly pointed. The stems and 
sheaths are flattened. The inflorescence consists of 3 or 4 
slender spikes clustered at the summit of the stems. 

The species is a native of tropical America and is 
abundant from Brazil, through the West Indies to the 
Southern United States. It withstands grazing and 
trampling and tends to occupy open moist alluvial soil. 
These qualities eminently fit it for a pasture grass. It 
can be started by planting cuttings. These grow rapidly 
and soon occupy the land. 

Carpet grass is much used near the coast as a lawn 
grass, for which purpose it is well suited. 



io6 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




20. Carpet Grass. The upper part of a flower stem, 
showing three spikes. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 1 07 

The botanical name is Axonopus compressus (Swartz) 
Beauv. It has been called Paspalum compressum Rasp, 
and Anastrophus compressus Schlecht. 

RESCUE GRASS 

Rescue grass is occasionally grown in the Southern 
States for winter forage. It is an erect annual grass 
I to 3 feet high, the panicle bearing a few spreading 
branches and rather few large flat spikelets 1/2 to 2/3 
inch long. The spikelets are several-flowered, the lem- 
mas sharp-pointed and sometimes slightly bristle-pointed 
but not awned. Rescue grass is a native of South 
America. It is also known as Schrader's brome grass 
and Australian brome grass. The botanical name is 
Bromus unioloides H. B. K. 

GUINEA GRASS 

Guinea grass is the most important cultivated forage 
grass of tropical America. Like most tropical forage 
plants it is cut and fed green. In the United States it 
can be grown only in southern Florida and southern 
Texas. It is an erect perennial, growing in large dense- 
bunches, the stems 4 to 8 feet high, with flat blades and a 
large open spreading panicle i to 2 feet long with num- 
erous small green elliptic spikelets about 1/8 inch long. 
Guinea grass is a native of Africa. Its botanical name is 
Panicum maximum Jacq. 

PARA GRASS 

Para grass is another important tropical forage grass 
which can be grown in the United States only in southern 
Florida and southern Texas. Para grass is a perennial 



io8 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



Pf^0:^ 




'I- Fescue Grass. Ahead 



or panicle and a single spikeJet. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE lOQ 

with stout stems that rise above the creeping base to a 
height of 4 to 8 feet, bearing flat smooth blades and a 
terminal panicle 4 to 8 inches long, consisting of several 
short branches scattered along the main axis. The 
spikelets are elliptic, about 1/8 inch long, crowded on the 
branches of the panicle. The creeping bases of the stems 
soon form a tangled mass which completely occupies the 
soil. The nodes or joints of the stem are densely velvety. 
Para grass is readily grown from cuttings. The pas- 
ture must be renewed occasionally as the soil becomes so 
filled with the roots and tangled stems that the forage is 
greatly reduced. Para grass does not withstand tramp- 
ling and is not well suited to pasture. In tropical 
countries it is used chiefly for soiling. Para grass is 
probably a native of Africa but is now cultivated through- 
out tropical America at low altitudes. The botanical 
name is Panicum barbinode Trin. It has been errone- 
ously called Panicum molle Swartz, a name which belongs 
to a different species. In the Hawaiian Islands, Para 
grass is usually known as panicum. 

THE FESCUE GRASSES 

There are several European species of fescue grasses 
that are used to a limited extent in this country in lawn 
and pasture mixtures. They are low grasses with fine 
leaves, the flower stalk being 6 to 12 inches high. Some 
of the species are much used in Europe, especially on 
rocky or sterile soil. In this country they are of some 
use on the same kind of soil in New England and in other 
parts of the Northeast, giving some pasture where other 
species could not obtain a foothold. The fescue grasses 



no 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



are more widely used in lawn mixtures but in general 
they have no especial advantage over Rhode Island bent, 
except that certain species give somewhat 
better results in partly shaded areas. Va- 
rious-leaved fescue and fine-leaved fescue 
are often sown in those parts of a lawn 
that are less exposed to the sun, as under 
the larger trees. 

The kinds of fescue grasses commonly 
sold by seedsmen are as follows: 

Sheep's Fescue. — Growing in erect 
bunches, with a tuft of firm, slender, 
rounded or needle-like leaves at base, the 
flower-stems 6 to 12 inches high. Pan- 
icle narrow, 2 to 4 inches long, spreading 
in flower but contracted afterward, the 
spikelets somewhat one-sided. Spikelets 
about 1/4 inch long, 3 to 6-flowered, the 
florets narrowed into a short bristle. The 
botanical name is Festuca ovina L. 

Slender Fescue. — Differs from sheep's 
fescue in having longer and more slender 
threadlike, rather soft blades. Botani- 
cally this and the next are usually consid- 
ered as varieties of sheep's fescue, but by 
some are considered to be distinct species. 

eps pgstuva ovina capillata (Lam.) Hack.; 
Fes c u e . A 
flower head or ^^stuca capillata Lam. 

panicle. Hard Fescue. — Differs from sheep's 

fescue in having harsher, firmer and 

thicker blades. Those of sheep's fescue are about 1/24 



22. S h ei 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE III 

inch thick, while those of hard fescue are about twice 
as thick, 1/12 inch. Festuca ovina duriuscula (L.) Koch. 
Festuca duriuscula L. 

Red Fescue. — This is a distinct species with a some- 
what creeping base. The leaves are less densely tufted 
at the base than in sheep's fescue, and are smooth to the 
touch. The stems may grow to be 2 or 3 feet high. The 
spikelets are similar to those of sheep's fescue, but the 
bristle on the florets is longer, about half as long as the 
floret. Festuca rubra L. 

Various-leaved Fescue. — A variety of red fescue with 
more slender softer leaves. The plants are more densely 
tufted. Often used in shaded places on lawns. Festuca 
rubra heterophylla (Lam.) Mut.; Festuca heterophylla 

Lam. 

RHODES GRASS 

Rhodes grass is a native of South Africa that has re- 
cently been introduced into this country where it has 
been tested as a forage grass. It promises to be of some 
value in the warmer parts of the country from Florida 
along the Gulf coast to Texas and in the irrigated regions 
of the Southwest and also in the drier parts of the 
Hawaiian Islands. Rhodes grass is a perennial which 
forms creeping stems that throw up at intervals erect 
flowering stems 2 or 3 feet high. The inflorescence is 
made up of several slender one-sided spikes aggregated 
at the summit of the stem forming an open tassel. The 
botanical name is Chloris Gayana Kunth. (See U. S. 
Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bulletin 1048.) 



112 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




23. Rhodes Grass. A flower head, consisting of numerous spikes. 



NATAL GRASS 

Natal grass has been recently introduced as a meadow 
grass in the sandy lands of Florida where it has proved 
very successful. It is the only grass that has given 
satisfaction in the pine barrens of central Florida, usually 
known as high pine land, and in the drier parts of the 
Hawaiian Islands. Another name for this grass is 
Natal redtop. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 



113 



Natal grass is an erect perennial, 2 
or 3 feet high or sometimes taller. The 
inflorescence is a silky, pale or dark 
pink, rather congested panicle 4 to 
8 inches long. It is a native of 
South Africa. The botan- 
ical name is Trich'olaena 
rosea Nees. 

Several cuttings of nu- 
tritious hay can be pro- 
cured each year. It can 
be grown from the seed or 
by setting out divisions of 
the crown or root. Natal 
grass is tender and cannot 
be grown north of Florida 
or the vicinity of the Gulf 
Coast. It cannot compete with 
other grasses on rich alluvial 
soil but is well adapted to rather 
dry sandy soil. 

SLENDER WHEAT GRASS 

This is a native species found grow- 
ing in the western part of the United 
States from Colorado to California and 
northward. It is a bunch grass with 
erect stems 2 to 4 feet tall. The struc- 
ture of the seed head is the same as 
that of wheat, but the spikelets are 
smaller apd mor^ slender, the glumes 




24, Natal Grass. 



114 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

rounded rather than keeled, the florets beardless or 
with short bristles. This species has been introduced 
into cultivation in the northern part of the Great Plains 
and the seed is offered for sale by seedsmen of that 
region. It is somewhat drouth resistant and produces 
a nutritious and palatable forage. The botanical name 
is Agropyron tenerum Vasey. 

A FEW OTHER GRASSES 

Paspalum dilatatum. — This grass has been recom- 
mended as a forage plant in the Southern States but the 
trials have not shown that it has any special value. It is 
a moderately coarse perennial, growing to the height of 
2 or 3 feet. The inflorescence consists of 2 to 5 spikelike 
racemes, sometimes more, growing along the upper part 
of the stem. These racemes are 2 to 4 inches long, one- 
sided, the spikelets being crowded on one side of a flat 
rachis or axis. The spikelets are flat on one side and con- 
vex on the other, ovate, somewhat silky along the edges. 

The name given above {Paspalum dilatatum Poir.) is 
the botanical name, by which the grass is generally 
known. It is sometimes known as water grass or water 
paspalum. It can be used for hay or pasture in the 
Southern States. On the basis of experiments with this 
grass it cannot now be recommended. 

Paspalum dilatatum is finding much favor in the 
Hawaiian Islands as a pasture grass in the upland pas- 
tures where there is a fair amount of moisture. It is 
there call paspalum. 

Texas Bluegrass. — Texas bluegrass is of little im- 
portance but has much to recommend it and m.ay come 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 



115 




25. Paspalum dilatatum. An inflorescence or flower head 
of four spikes. 



Il6 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

into more common use in the future. It is a native of 
Texas and has been tried in many places in the south for 
winter pasture and for lawns. It remains green during 
the winter in the south, which is a strong point in its 
favor. The seed cannot be obtained upon the market 
and the plants must be started by planting pieces of the 
rootstocks. The plants spread by these and soon occupy 
the ground. 

The stems are erect, i or 2 feet high, bearing contracted 
panicles 2 to 4 inches long. The plants are dioecious, 
that is the male and female flowers are borne on dilTerent 
plants. The seeds are very woolly. The botanical 
name is Poa arachnifera Torr. 

Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. — Rough-stalked mea- 
dow grass resembles Kentucky bluegrass in appearance 
but does not produce creeping rootstocks. It is usually 
larger and more lax and can be easily distinguished by 
the rough sheaths. This species is occasionally culti- 
vated in meadow or pasture mixtures upon wet soil. 

The botanical name is Poa triviaUs L. It belongs to 
the bluegrass genus. The specific name means common 
or ordinary. 

Rough-stalked meadow grass is a native of Europe but 
is not infrequent as an introduced plant from New Eng- 
land to Louisiana and in the Pacific Northwest. 

Fowl Meadow Grass. — This is a smooth, tufted grass 
without rootstocks, the stems i to 4 feet tall. The 
panicles resemble those of Kentucky bluegrass but are 
larger and more open, being from 4 to 12 inches long. 



GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE II7 

It is a member of the bluegrass group. The spikelets are 
about 1/6 inch long, with 2 to 4 florets. Like Kentucky 
bluegrass, the 3 prominent nerves of the lemma are 
silky-pubescent and there is a tuft of cobwebby hairs at 
the base. This grass is sometimes recommended for 
meadow mixtures, especially for moist soil. It grows 
commonly as an introduced species along the northern 
border of the United States. 

The botanical name of fowl meadow grass is Poa 
palustris L. meaning marshy poa or poa growing in 
marshes. Other Latin names that have been applied 
to this are Poa triflora Gilib. and Poa serotina Ehrh. 

Crested Dog's-tail Grass. — This species is used in 
Europe in mixtures for meadows and pastures but cannot 
be recommended for use in this country. It is a slender 
perennial i to 2 feet high with dense terminal spikelike 
panicles, the spikelets in clusters, the upper ones of each 
cluster being fertile, the lower ones larger and sterile, 
with narrow lemmas. The botanical name is Cynosurus 
crista kis L. 

Meadow Foxtail. — Meadow foxtail is a European 
grass that in this country is occasionally sown in mix- 
tures for meadows in the northern humid region. Al- 
though a frequent ingredient of meadows and pastures 
in Europe it is of no value in this country. Meadow fox- 
tail somewhat resembles timothy in general appearance. 
The spike or head is dense and cylindric but is more 
flexible and softer to the touch. The spikelets differ in 
that the glumes are unawned but the lemma bears a 



Il8 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

slender awn or bristle from the back below the middle. 
The awns protrude beyond the spikelets giving the head a 
silky-bristly appearance. The botanical name is Alope- 
curus pratensis L. The generic name is from two Greek 
words meaning fox and tail. 

Napier Grass. — This is a native of tropical Africa 
recently introduced in this country for trial. It gives 
promise as a forage grass in Florida and west along the 
Gulf Coast to Texas and also in southwestern Arizona 
and southern California. Napier grass is a robust peren- 
nial growing to the height of 6 to 12 feet, with narrow 
spikes or heads 4 to 10 inches long. It may be propa- 
gated from the seed, or from cuttings of the canes, or 
from divisions of the crown or root-clump. The botani- 
cal name is Pennisetum purpureum Schum. In Africa 
it is called elephant grass. 

Carib Grass. — Carib grass is a native of the West 
Indies that resembles Para grass in general appearance 
but is more erect in its growth and hence more favorable 
for a hay crop. It can be used only in the extreme south 
in the region suited to Para grass. The botanical name is 
Eriochloa subglahra (Nash) Hitchc. 



CHAPTER IX 

ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 

On account of their short life, the annual grasses are 
not, of course, suited to permanent meadow or pasture. 
Some of the annuals are sometimes used for temporary 
pasture, as in the case of rye, but their chief use is for hay. 
The hay of the coarse grasses, such as corn and sorghum, 
is called fodder. Another important use for many of the 
annuals is in soiling, or cutting and feeding green. 

COMMON MILLET 

The term millet is used for several different kinds of 
grasses, but in the United States, when used without a 
qualifying word, refers to common or foxtail millet. 
Other kinds of millet are proso or broom-corn millet, 
pearl millet, Chinese millet, and Japanese barnyard 
millet, each of which is discussed under its appropriate 
heading. Among some primitive peoples, millet is 
grown for the grain which is used for food, but in this 
country it is used for forage only. Being an annual, it 
furnishes temporary meadow only. Millet is grown in 
the eastern half of the United States, but chiefly in the 
region from Oklahoma to Iowa. It is especially useful 
as a summer crop following grain, thus fully utilizing the 
land — a so-called catch crop. As the young plants are 
tender, the seed cannot be sown early. The hay is 
palatable and nutritious and is valuable for all kinds of 

119 



120 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

stock, but must be fed to horses with caution as it may 
injure them if they are fed too exclusively on it. It 
• should not be cut too late as the bristles on the heads 
become troublesome. Hungarian grass is a variety of 
millet. 

Varieties of Millet. — There are several varieties of 
millet cultivated in this country and many more used 
in the Old World. 

.. Common millet, or what is generally known merely as 
rnillet,.has rather small heads, 2 to 3 inches long, 1/4 to 
1/2 inch thick, the bristles noticeably longer than the 
spikelets or seeds, the seeds pale (straw color to light- 
brown), the bristles greenish or purple. 

Hungarian grass has small dense heads, i to 3 inches 
long, with black or dark-colored seeds and purple 
bristles. 

German millet has large lobed heads, 4 to 12 inches 
long, and as much as 2 inches thick, the bristles notice- 
ably longer than the spikelets, the seeds pale, the bristles 
greenish or purple. 

Golden Wonder millet differs from German millet in 
having bristles shorter than the spikelets or scarcely 
exceeding them. 

A few other varieties have been recently introduced 
into this country and are sparingly cultivated. 

Turkish millet has red seed, large lobed heads, and 
purple bristles. 

Kursk or Siberian millet differs from the preceding in 
having a small dense head. 

Aino millet has large lobed heads, brown bristles, and 
pale seed. 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 



121 



Description. — An erect annual with 
flat blades, erect or often nodding 
spikelike panicles or "heads." The 
spikelets are in close clusters on the 
short branches of the panicle, inter- 
spersed with rough green, yellow, 
brown or purple bristles which usu- 
ally exceed them in length. The 
spikelet itself consists of three bracts 
(2 glumes and a sterile lemma) inside 
of which is the fertile floret consist- 
ing of a hardened lemma and palea. 
At maturity, the ripened floret or 
fruit shells out of the spikelet and 
forms what is commonly called the 
seed. This varies in color in the 
different varieties from pale yellow 
to red brown or nearly black. 

Botanical Names. — Chaetochloa ital- 
ica (L.) Scribn. Millet was first de- 
scribed by Linnaeus under the genus 
Panicum as P. italicum L. Later this 
and allied species were separated as a 
distinct genus under the name Setaria, 
this species becoming S. italica Beauv. 
As the name Setaria had been previ- 
ously applied to a genus of lichens, 
the name of the millet genus was 
changed by Scribner to Chattochloa. 
Many botanists still use the name Se- 
taria. Both names refer to the bris- 



^■ 



^^? 



^ 



26. German Mil- 
let. A single seed 
head. 



122 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



ties around the spikelets,Setaria, from the Latin seta, a 
bristle, and Chaetochloa, from the Greek chaeta, a bris- 
tle, and chloa, grass. The specific name 
is a geographical adjective referring to 
Italy, a country where millet was much 
grown. 

Foxtail Grass. — Allied to the culti- 
vated millet are two wild species that 
have been introduced into this country 
and are now common weeds in the East- 
ern States. One, with a cylindrical yel- 
low head, is yellow foxtail; the other, 
with a slightly tapering head, is green 
foxtail. Both are called, in some local- 
ities, pigeon grass. It is sometimes diffi- 
cult to distinguish green foxtail from 
depauperate specimens of millet. If the 
ripe head of green foxtail is rubbed be- 
tween the fingers to shatter the seed, 

the spikelets fall off with the glumes 
27. Hungarian 1 rr • -i, • 

Grass A single surroundmg the seed. It ripe millet is 

seed head. treated in the same manner the seed 

falls out free from the glumes. 




PROSO MILLET 

Proso or proso millet is commonly grown in Europe 
and western Asia, the seeds being used for food. In this 
country it is grown to a limited extent for forage and 
sometimes for the seed which is used for hogs. Although 
proso can be grown successfully in many parts of the 
United States, it has not been received with much favor 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 



123 




28. Proso or Broom-corn Millet. 



.124 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

as it cannot compete with forage crops already grown in 
the same regions. 

Description. — Proso is an annual 2 or 3 feet tall, with 
bristly sheaths and an open finally heavy and drooping 
panicle. The spikelets are elliptical, smooth, pointed, 
the first glume about half as long as the spikelet, 3- 
nerved, the second glume and sterile lemma equal, 
several-nerved. The fertile lemma or fruit (commonly 
called the seed) is smooth and shining, oval, somewhat 
flattened on one side, yellowish or brownish, about 3 mm. 
long (1/8 inch). 

Botanical and Common Names. — The botanical name 
is Panicum miliaceum L. Besides the name proso it is 
known in Europe as common millet. In this country it 
is sometimes called hog millet because the grain is used 
for hog feed, and sometimes broom-corn millet because 
the fruiting panicle looks something like a head or panicle 
of broom-corn. 

JAPANESE BARNYARD MILLET 

Japanese barnyard millet is sometimes advertised by 
seedsmen but it has not shown that it has advantages 
over the forage plants now in use. It is grown in some 
parts of tropical Asia and Africa for the grain which is 
used for human food. In this country it has been recom- 
mended for hay. The species can be grown at low alti- 
tudes throughout the United States except in the extreme 
North, but requires plenty of moisture. Under favorable 
conditions the yield is fairly heavy. However, the grass 
is succulent and when cut dries slowly so that the cur- 
ing of the hay is a rather slow process. Altogether it is a 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 



125 



grass that has Httle to recommend it 
for cultivation in this country. It is 
entirely unsuited for growing in re- 
gions deficient in moisture. Under ir- 
rigation, there are other forage plants 
that are more satisfactory. 

Description. — An erect smooth suc- 
culent annual, 2 to 4 feet tall, with 
fiat blades, and a narrow rather com- 
pact panicle or head made up of nu- 
merous short spikes about an inch 
long, these ascending or appressed. 
Spikelets crowded, ovate, flattish on 
one side, somewhat pointed but not 
awned, about 3 mm. (1/8 inch) long, 
covered with short, stiff hairs. First 
glume 1/3 the length of the spikelet. 
The spikes are somewhat incurved. 
The whole inflorescence usually 3 or 4 
inches long. 

Botanical and Common Names. — 
Echinochloa crusgalli edulis Hitchc. 
It is also known as Panicum frumen- 
taceum Roxb. It is a variety of Echi- 
nochloa crusgalli, the common barnyard 
grass, a weed of moist places and cul- 
tivated soil, which differs in having 
awned spikelets, the awn often several 
times as long as the spikelet. Japan- 
ese barnyard millet has been adver- 
tised by seedsmen as billion dollar 
grass. 



1 



29. Japanese Barn- 
yard Millet. A 
seed head. 



126 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



PEARL MILLET 
Pearl millet is a tall coarse annual grass, 
with broad leaves and a cylindric spike or 
seed head as thick as one's thumb and about 
a foot long. The growth resembles that of 
sorghum, the stems being 6 to lo feet tall, 
but the cylindric seed head is different from 
that of any other grass in cultivation. Pearl 
millet is used to a limited extent in the South- 
ern States, mostly for soiling but has no ad- 
vantages over the sorghums. The botanical 
name is Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. 
Other names are Pennisetum americanum (L.) 
Schum., Pennisetum typhoideum Rich., and 
Penicillaria spicata Willd. 

THE SORGHUMS 
The term sorghum includes a number of 
rather diverse forms all derived from a single 
botanical species. These forms have been 
cultivated and selected for different purposes 
and hence have developed along different 
lines. Some are cultivated for the sweet juice, 
from which syrup is made. Others are culti- 
vated for forage, others for the seed. One 
form called broom-corn is cultivated for the 
long stiff branches of the inflorescence. The 
following is a key to the commoner kinds of 
sorghum.* 

30. Pearl Millet. A seed head or spike, reduced 
from natural size. 

* Ball, History and Distribution of Sorghums (U. 
S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PI. Ind. Bull. 175. 1910.) 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 127 

Pith juicy 

Juice abundant and very sweet Sorg o 

Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid 

Panicles cylindric; peduncles erect; spikelets 3 to 4 

mm. wide; lemmas awnless Kafir. 

Panicles ovate; peduncles mostly inclined, often 
recurved; spikelets 4, 5 or 6 mm. wide, lemmas 

awned Milo. 

Pith dry 

Panicle lax, 25 to 70 cm. long 

Rachis less than 1/5 as long as the panicle; panicle 
umbelliform, the branches greatly elongate 

Broom-corn. 
Rachis more than 2/3 as long as the panicle 

Panicle conic, the branches strongly drooping 

Shallu. 
Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spread- 
ing Kowliang. 

Panicle compact, 10 to 25 cm. long 

Spikelets broadly obovate, 2| to 3^ mjn. wide 

Kowliang. 
Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.^ to 6 mm. wide 

Glumes grayish or greenish, not w.inkled, 
densely pubescent; seeds strongly flattened 

Durra. 

Glumes deep brown or black, transversely 

wrinkled; thinly pubescent; seeds slightly 

flattened Milo. 

The sorghums with sweet juice are known as sugar or 
saccharine sorghums, or more recently as sorgo. They 
aVe used for the production of syrup and for forage. 
Two well-known varieties are Amber and Orange. In 
the southern part of the Great Plains region, sorgo is 
often known as cane. For forage, sorgo is sown or 
planted thickly in order to produce numerous slender 
stems that can be cut with a mowing machine. 

The sorghums with dry stems or with somewhat juicy 



128 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

but not sweet stems are known collectively as non- 
saccharine sorghums. Kafir, milo, and durra have 
become important in the semiarid regions of the area 
from Kansas to Texas and westward because of their 
drouth resistance, and are used for forage and grain 
especially in the localities where dry farming is practiced. 
A variety of durra that has recently come into promi- 
nence is called feterita. A variety of sorghum escaped 
from cultivation in Louisiana and growing in a semiwild 
state is called chicken corn. 

Common Names. — The common names of the various 
races and varieties of sorghum are very numerous. Some 
of these have been indicated in the preceding para- 
graphs. The general name is sorghum, and the varieties 
together are generally indicated by the plural, the 
sorghums. Agriculturists, especially in the Middle West, 
distinguish saccharine sorghums with sweet juice from 
the non-saccharine sorghums without sweet juice. 
Broom corn is grown only for the special purpose of 
broom-manufacture. The saccharine sorghums or sorgo, 
such as Orange and Amber, are grown for the production 
of syrup and for forage but in this country not for grain. 
In the Middle West when sown for forage, sorgo is often 
called cane. The most important of the non-saccharine 
sorghums are Kafir (or Kafir corn) and milo (sometimes 
called milo maize). Crook-necked varieties of milo and 
durra are not looked upon with favor because the crooks 
interfere with harvesting. Feterita is a variety of durra. 
Sudan grass, a variety distinct from any of those men- 
tioned in the key to the sorghums, is treated separately 
in a following paragraph. Tunis grass is another dis- 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES I29 

tinct variety allied to Sudan grass. Both the latter are 
used for forage. Kafir and milo are used for both 
forage and grain. 

Botanical Names. — Holcus Sorghum L. The name 
Holcus has been referred to under Johnson grass. The 
specific name, Sorghum, is of Italian origin and was the 
name by which it was known in Europe during the 
Middle Ages. Some botanists include this genus in the 
large genus Andropogon, in this case, calling it Andro- 
pogon Sorghum (L.) Brot. Chicken corn is Holcus 
Sorghum, Drummondii (Nees) Hitchc. {Andropogon 
Sorghum, Drummondii Piper) . 

Description. — Stems stout, erect, pithy, dry or juicy, 
sometimes growing to the height of 10 feet or even more, 
annual or in warm countries persisting, but not produc- 
ing rootstocks; leaves broad, sometimes as much as 2 
inches or even more; panicle open or condensed, oval or 
oblong, the stalk upright or bent in the form of a crook. 

Broom corn has an open panicle with long, stiff, naked 
branches. 

Kafir has a dense oblong panicle on an erect stalk, 
and- comparatively low stout stems, mostly 4 or 5 feet 
tall. 

Milo has dense panicles, usually short or ovate, some- 
times on curved stalks, the stems usually taller than 
those of Kafir. 

Sudan grass has slender stems and a loose open panicle. 
This plant looks more like a large Johnson grass but 
differs in having an annual root without rootstocks. 

Durra has compact panicles and strongly flattened 
seeds. 



130 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

SUDAN GRASS 

Sudan grass is a form of sorghum differing from the 
varieties described in the paragraph on that subject 
(page 127). It is a slender-stemmed form reaching a 
height of 5 to 7 feet when grown thickly or to the height 
of 9 feet or more when grown in rows and cultivated. 
The stooling of the stems is pronounced, one seed pro- 
ducing 50 to 100 stems when there is plenty of room, 
though under ordinary conditions only a few are formed. 
In general appearance Sudan grass is more like Johnson 
grass than the familiar varieties of sorghum, but no 
rootstocks are produced. The panicle is large and open. 

Sudan grass is giving much promise in the warmer 
portions of the United States. Just how far north it can 
be used to advantage has not yet been definitely deter- 
mined. It is sensitive to frost but is a quick grower and 
will produce a crop during the frostless months, as it 
requires only 60 to 70 days for maturity. The Maryland 
Agricultural Experiment Station reports success with this 
crop. (Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 194. 1916.) On ac- 
count of its quick growth and heavy yield, it is exhausting 
to the fertility of the soil. Its chief use northward is as a 
catch hay crop, as is millet. It is valuable for hay and 
for soiling and is used in the same way as sorgo. 

Sudan grass is best sown with a grain drill at the rate 
of about 15 pounds (of clean seed) in the dry sections 
or 20 to 25 pounds in the humid sections. If sown 
broadcast the amount required is one-half to one-third 
more. The hay can be cut when the plants start to head 
but a better quality is produced when the heads are in 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES I3I 

full bloom. The hay is cut with a mower and harvested 
in the same manner as is timothy or other heavy hay but 
being succulent (especially the stems) requires more time 
for curing than does timothy. Another method is to 
use a grain binder and tie in small sheaves, these being 
set up in small shocks to dry in the field. In the South 
two cuttings can be secured. 

The botanical name is Holcus Sorghum Siidanensis 
(Piper) Hitchc. It is also known as Andropogon 
Sorghum Sudanensis Piper. An allied form, Tunis grass 
{Holcus Sorghum exiguus (Forsk.) Hitchc; Andropogon 
Sorghum exiguus Piper) has been tried but seems to be 
of less value than Sudan grass. 

For a full discussion of Sudan Grass see U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture Bulletin 1126. 

TEOSINTE 

Teosinte is a coarse succulent grass of Mexican origin, 
used sparingly in the Southern States as a soiling plant. 
It is an annual, growing to the height of 4 to 8 feet, 
branching at the base, producing many stalks with broad 
leaves. The ^alks resemble those of corn but are more 
slender. At the summit is a tassel similar to that of 
corn and in the axils of several of the leaves are small ears 
with protruding silk. The ears consist of several rows 
of rhomboidal hard seedlike joints, each row surrounded 
by a covering of husks. Under favorable conditions 
teosinte produces a large amount of green forage but for a 
high yield requires considerable moisture. It can be 
grown to advantage only along the Gulf Coast. Being a 
tender plant, it will not withstand frost. 



132 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

The botanical name of teosinte is Euchlaena mexicana 
Schrad. 

CORN 

Indian corn or maize is primarily grown for the grain 
but a considerable amount is used for forage, either 
directly as a soiling crop or incidentally as corn fodder. 
Throughout the corn-growing region a large amount of 
green corn is cut and fed to stock upon the farm. Usu- 
ally this is taken from fields sown for grain-production. 
Sometimes the seed is sown thickly and the resulting 
growth, being thin-stalked, is cut with a mower and made 
into hay. 

A large amount of coarse forage is obtained from corn 
fodder or corn stover. This is a by-product from the 
corn grown primarily for grain. The corn is cut when 
it is nearing maturity but before the leaves have lost 
their nutritive qualities, when the grain is past the milk 
and is beginning to harden. At this stage is produced 
the maximum of the combination of grain and forage. 
The cut stalks are placed in shocks where they are 
allowed to remain until cured. The corn is then husked 
out and the fodder stored for use in winter. Or the 
dried stalks with the ears are run through a machine 
which husks the ears and shreds the fodder. 

Another important forage use of corn is that of silage, 
taking the lead among plants used for this purpose. 

The botanical name of corn is Zea mays L. The origin 
of corn is uncertain as it is not now found in the wild 
state. It originated somewhere in America between 
Mexico and Bolivia, and was cultivated by the aborigines 
from Brazil to New England before the discovery of 



ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 133 

America by Columbus; it is now cultivated throughout 
the warmer regions of the world. 

THE SMALL GRAINS 

These grasses are ordinarily grown only incidentally 
for forage, but on the Pacific Coast, because of the 
absence of forage grasses suited to the conditions, the 
grains are extensively used for the production of hay, 
there known as grain hay. About three milHon tons of 
grain hay are produced in the states of California, Oregon, 
and Washington. The grains here used for hay are 
mostly wheat, barley, and oats, including wild oats. 

Wild oats is a common and often dominant constituent 
of the growth upon fallow grain fields. There are two 
species included under the designation wild oats. The 
commonest is Avena fatua L. which diflfers from the culti- 
vated oat, Avena sativa L., in having the florets covered 
with stiff brownish hairs, while the florets of the culti- 
vated oat are smooth. There is a smooth variety of this, 
called A. fatua glabrata Peterm., which can be dis- 
tinguished from the cultivated oat by the strong bent 
awn and by the easily disarticulating florets. The 
second species of wild oat is Avena barbata Brot. This 
differs from the other species mentioned above in having 
more slender panicle branches, and in having the teeth 
of the lemma extended into slender awns. 

CHESS OR CHEAT 

This is a European species of the genus Bromus which 
has become a troublesome weed in this country especially 
in grain fields. It is an erect annual, often stooling at 



134 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

the base like wheat, with smooth sheaths, flat blades, 
an open drooping panicle, and smooth, rather plump, 
several-flowered spikelets, the florets with short bristles. 
Though troublesome when growing with grain because 
the seeds are difficult to separate from those of wheat, it 
nevertheless is a nutritious forage grass. The only 
region where it is used for forage on a commercial scale 
is in the valley of the Columbia River in Washington 
and Oregon. Bromus secalinus L. is the botanical name. 
There is a myth, still current in some localities, that 
wheat, under unfavorable weather conditions, turns to 
chess. 



CHAPTER X 
NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 

The grazing industry is an important branch of agri- 
culture. As the term is usually applied, it refers to the 
raising of stock upon large areas of native pasture. 
Formerly the native pasture was chiefly public land com- 
monly known as range. As time passes the area of public 
land becomes less and that privately owned becomes 
greater, the latter usually being fenced. Furthermore 
the National Forests formerly open to the public are 
now subject to grazing only under lease. It is not the 
purpose here to discuss policies or details concerning 
grazing or the stock industry, but to point out the 
importance of grasses as a basic element in this industry. 

Native pasture or range consists of a great variety of 
plants. In times of stress, stock may be forced to feed 
upon many kinds of vegetation that cannot be classed 
as forage plants, in fact may eat any shrub or herb that 
is not actually inedible because of spines or prickles, or 
because of being too woody or fibrous. Of those plants 
which are eaten from choice, the grasses are by far the 
most important. The principal grazing areas lie west 
of the looth meridian. Formerly nearly all of the east- 
ern portion of the Great Plains was devoted to stock 
raising but a large proportion of this region is now de- 
voted to crop raising and to stock raising as a part of 
general farming. The range region of the western 

135 



136 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




United States is being steadily encroached 
upon by farms as distinguished from 
ranches. 

The grazing lands of the West may be 
roughly divided into five regions, 
plains, valleys, deserts, humid for- 
ests, and mountain meadows. 



PLAINS 

The open treeless region known 
as the Great Plains extends in the 
United States from the Canadian 
border to Mexico and from the 
Rocky Mountains to 
about the 96th meridian. 
A large proportion of 
this is still devoted to 
grazing. In this region 
grasses form so large a 
part of the grazing that 
the other plants may 
be disregarded. Over a 
considerable portion of 
Texas the meskit tree 
( Prosopis j ulifl r a) 
forms an important 
source of forage, but this 
region probably should 
be classified as forest 
rather than as plain. 
The grasses of the plains 



31. Buffalo Grass. Showing a 
staminate plant at left, with two 
spikes of flowers; a pistillate plant 
at right, with two clusters of seed- 
bearing flowers. Seed is produced 
only by the second kind of flowers. 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 



137 



are numerous, but three 
species, bufifalo grass, 
grama grass, and curly 
mesquite, stand out as 
being especially import- 
ant. These are all pop- 
ularly known on the 
plains as short grasses, to 
distinguish them from 
taller species of the val- 
leys, such as blues tem. 
In all three species the 
foliage is short and curly, 
forming a close covering 
to the soil. The flower 
stalks of grama grass rise 
to the height of several 
inches. 

Bufifalo grass (Bulbilis 
dactyloides (Nutt.) Raf . ; 
Buchloc dactyl aides 
(Nutt.) Engelm.) is a 
light or grayish green 
creeping grass that forms 
a strong firm sod. The 
flowers are of two sorts, 
the male or staminate 
being produced on short 
erect stems 3 to 6 inches 
tall, with 2 or 3 short 
pale spikes or flags, not 




32. Grama Grass. The upper 
part of two flower stems, each bear- 
ing two spikes of flowers. 



138 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



over 1/2 inch long, near the top. The female or pistil- 
late flowers (these bearing the seed) are in little green 
clusters or heads hidden among the leaves. 
The flowers of both sorts are inconspicuous 
and might not be noticed except by a 
close observer. Buffalo grass extends 
from the Dakotas to Texas, and is the 
dominant range grass in Kansas and 
Nebraska. The sod of which the early 
settlers built sod houses consisted 
chiefly of buffalo grass. 

Grama grass {Bouteloua gracilis (H. 
B. K.) Lag.; B. oligostachya Torr.) is 
not creeping, either by stolons or 
rootstocks, but where the grass is 
abundant, as in the rich soil of the 
Great Plains, the bunches are so close 
together that they form a continuous 
covering. Upon hills and upon more 
arid soil of the Southwest the plants 

occur 
usually 
as i s o- 




33. Curly Mesquite. An old plant with runners which produce 
new plants; an old flower stem with a seed head from which the 
spikelets have fallen. At the left is a young seed head or spike. 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 139 

lated bunches. Grama grass resembles buffalo grass 
in its foliage, but may be readily distinguished by the 
flower stalks. These rise to the height of several inches 
or in favorable conditions to as much as a foot and a 
half. Towards the top are i to 3 spikes or flags, one at 
the end, the other i or 2, if present, at intervals of about 
an inch below. The flags are about an inch long, 
brownish or purplish in color and attached at an angle, 
sometimes nearly horizontally. They act as wind vanes, 
being all blown to the leeward side. Grama grass is 
found in varying quantities throughout the Great Plains. 
There is a second species of grama grass called black 
grama {Bouteloua hirsuta Lag.), to distinguish it from 
the one described above, called sometimes blue grama. 
Black grama closely resembles blue grama but is found 
especially on sterile hills and not usually on the rich 
open plains. Black grama is smaller and the flags are 
more fuzzy. 

Curly mesquite {I^ilaria Belangeri Steud.) resembles 
buffalo grass. It forms runners by which it spreads and 
forms a close sod. The flower stalks are usually only a 
few inches high but may be as much as a foot high. The 
inflorescence or flowerhead is a close spike an inch or 
two long. The spikelets are in clusters closely set along a 
central axis. The spike or cylindric flowerhead is often 
brownish or purplish, sometimes almost black. Curly 
mesquite is the dominant grass on the plains of Texas. 

VALLEYS 

In this category are placed the open valleys in which 
forest is absent or confined to the immediate vicinity of 



140 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

the water courses. Forested valleys are classified with 
humid forests. The valleys support a richer vegetation 
because of the greater fertility of the soil and because of 
the greater water supply. They are usually the first 
part of a region to be occupied by habitation and are the 
first to be turned from grazing to field crops. Up to the 
present time, an important part of the grazing areas of 
the arid and semiarid regions has been supplied by the 
valleys. Since they contain the chief water supply, the 
valleys were taken up as claims and are now mostly 
under private ownership, hence are usually fenced. In 
so far as these pastures contain the original native vege- 
tation they may be discussed under the subject of ranges. 
In this discussion will be included both pasture and 
meadow grasses. In the valleys the richer growth is 
utilized for the production of hay. The grasses of the 
valleys are, in the main, different from those of the 
uplands. The original vegetation has often been in- 
creased and sometimes considerably modified by irri- 
gation or flooding. The unwonted water supply has 
encouraged the growth of those species that are accus- 
tomed to moist soil so that sometimes these species have 
become dominant over large areas. Unfortunately 
these moisture-loving species may be of inferior forage 
value. A notable case of this kind is the so-called wire 
grass of the Rocky Mountain region. This is a species of 
rush (Juncus halticus L.) and not a true grass. It is 
now the dominant plant in many parts of Wyoming and 
adjacent states, where it is the custom to flood the native 
meadows. The excessive water supply has encouraged 
the growth of the wire grass and has inhibited the growth 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 



141 



of the more nutritious grasses. 
The hay made from wire grass 
is fairly palatable but is much 
less nutritious than the origi- 
nal grass-hay of these valleys. 
There are many species of 
grasses common in the Missis- 
sippi Valley that find their 
way up to the valleys of the 
plains. Many of these are the 
"tall-grasses" mentioned pre- 
viously, of which big bluestem 
(Andropogon furcatus Muhl.), 
little bluestem (Andropogon 
scoparius Michx.), Indian grass 
(Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash) 
and switch grass (Panicum vir- 
gatum L.) are examples. In 
the valley of the Arkansas 
River and other valleys to the 
southwest, a species of Sporo- 
bolus {S. airoides Torr.) is com- 
mon. Through this region this 
grass is known as bunch grass, 
a name that is applied to many 
other species in various parts 
of the country. The inflores- 
cence is open and, spreading. 
A related species of Sporobolus 

(^.l^nVMi Munro) is common d- r.i . a u j 

, ^ ^ 34. Big Bluestem. A head 

in the valleys of southern Ari- with three spikes of flowers. 




142 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

zona and New Mexico, where it is known by the Mexi- 
can name of sacaton. This is a vigorous bunch grass 2 
to 6 feet high, erect, with long tough leaves and a large 
open oblong panicle i to 2 feet long. In the valleys to 
the north, especially in the Great Basin, a species of 
bluegrass {Poa nevadensis Vasey) is common. In alka- 
line soil the dominant grass is likely to be salt grass 
{Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene). . This is a short tough 
grass with extensively creeping stout wiry rootstocks, 
short stiff distinctly 2-ranked leaves, and a short nar- 
row whitish flower head. Salt grass is of little value 
for forage but in the absence of other grasses is grazed 
by stock. Large areas of the grass are found in the 
Salt Lake basin of Utah. 

DESERTS 

Under this heading are included the arid regions west 
of the Great Plains. Much of the desert region is more 
arid than the western part of the Great Plains, but even 
in cases where the rainfall is about the same, the desert 
differs from the plain in the lack of a continuous grass 
covering. The vegetation of the desert varies from al- 
most total absence to a covering of scattered shrubs 
and small trees. Alkaline deserts may be so strongly 
impregnated with salt or soda as to be totally lacking in 
vegetation. These deserts are the basins of former lakes 
and may still contain shallow lakes at least during the 
wet season. Such deserts are colloquially known as 
"slick deserts." Where the soil is less alkaline there 
may be a growth of grease wood and salt bushes. The 
later are of value as forage plants. If the soil is not 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 1 43 

strongly alkaline there is always some vegetation even 
though the rainfall is very low. Areas of drifting sand 
and of rock are devoid of vegetation, one because of the 
instability of the soil, the other because of its absence, 
and not because of the absence of water. In the regions 
thus far mentioned under deserts there is no grazing. 

In a general way the remaining desert areas furnish 
some grazing at certain periods of the year. Much 
desert land is excluded from actual use because there is 
no water supply for stock. Portions of such regions are 
gradually being brought into usefulness by the boring 
of wells and the discovery of artesian water supply. 

Throughout the region from the Sierra Nevada Moun- 
tains to the Rocky Mountains, the plateau is a desert 
region at the lower altitudes (excluding the vicinity of 
the streams) with humid forests upon the numerous inter- 
spersed mountain ranges. The snow fall, except in the 
southern part of the region, affords a supply of water 
for stock during the winter, hence it is customary to 
range sheep upon the desert in winter and upon the 
mountains in summer. The forage upon the desert in 
winter is chiefly shrubs and coarse perennials that are 
not grasses. 

In southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico 
annual plants, including several small annual grasses, 
are important sources of forage following the short rainy 
season. In the eastern part of this region the rain comes 
mostly in the summer, hence there is a short period of 
summer grazing. In the western part the rains come in 
the winter, with a corresponding winter grazing season. 
There is an intermediate region where the seasons over- 



144 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

lap and there may be rains in both summer and winter, 
followed by two grazing seasons. 

The northern portion of the Great Basin is a vast 
plateau, the dominant plant of which is the sage brush 
{Artemisia tridentata). This region is often referred to 
as sage brush plains. It is scarcely a desert but is so 
classified here because it is arid or semiarid. It affords 
many species of grasses that furnish forage during the 
spring and early summer. Chief among these are certain 
native species of bluegrass {Poa Sandhergii Vasey, and 
several other species of Poa). 

The foothills of the Pacific Coast region furnish excel- 
lent forage after the winter rains but become brown and 
sere during the summer. One of the most important 
native species is California bluegrass (Poa scabrella 
Benth.). This region has been invaded by a host of 
introduced annuals which are driving out the native 
grasses and themselves furnish an inferior forage. These 
annuals are grazed during the early growth before the 
seeds are produced. The most conspicuous of these 
intruders are several kinds of brome grass (species of 
Bromus) and wild barley (species of Hordeum). 

HUMID FORESTS 

In general the forests occupy the mountain ranges, 
except the upper part of the higher peaks. The timber 
line is approximately 1 1 ,000 feet altitude in the southern 
mountains and about 6,000 feet at the north. The lower 
limit of the forest depends upon the rainfall. In the 
eastern Rocky Mountains the forest meets the plains, in 
the Great Basin it meets the desert and sage brush plains. 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 1 45 

In the Pacific Northwest the forest originally occupied 
most of the region from the Cascade Mountains to the 
coast. The dense humid forest furnishes no grazing 
grasses of importance but the more open forest of the 
upper mountains may be carpeted with grass. An im- 
portant grazing grass of the mountains of eastern Wash- 
ington and eastern Oregon is pine grass {Calamagrostis 
ruhescens Buckl.). This is a fine-leaved bunch grass with 
a contracted, oblong, or cylindric flower head. An- 
other important grazing grass of the northwest is 
"bunch grass" or mountain fescue {Festuca idahoensis 
Elmer), a grass with slender rough stiff leaves in a 
large basal cluster and a small somewhat open few- 
flowered panicle. There are also many species of Poa 
or native bluegrass. 

The plateau of northern Arizona and adjacent regions 
is covered with open forest and is here classified as forest, 
though it is a semiarid region. Another species of 
Festuca {F. arizonica Vasey), a bunch grass resembling 
F. idahoensis , but often conspicuously bluish, is common 
and is an important part of the forage. 

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS 

Where the mountains are high enough to extend above 
tree line, there are areas of grass land that furnish grazing 
during the summer as the snow retreats. These moun- 
tain meadows contain many species of grasses, few of 
which have distinctive common names. One species, on 
account of its resemblance to the cultivated timothy, is 
called mountain timothy {Phleum alpinum L.). Moun- 
tain bunch grass {Festuca viridula Vasey), common in 



146 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

mountain meadows in this region, is a smooth erect 
perennial with acute but awnless florets. 

WILD HAY 

Large quantities of wild hay are put up in the West 
for use upon the farm or ranch. In the arid and semi- 
arid regions this hay is procured from the valley lands 
that can be irrigated or flooded, or from naturally moist 
land along the water courses. The grasses that furnish 
the hay are the species mentioned previously as growing 
in the valleys. Commercial wild hay is produced in 
large quantities in the United States lying east of the 
Rocky Mountains and north of the Cotton Belt. By 
commercial hay is meant that which is sold upon the 
market, as distinguished from that which is consumed 
upon the farm or ranch. The wild hay may be classified 
as prairie hay, marsh hay, and salt marsh hay. 

Prairie hay is produced from the prairie grasses, the 
most important of which are big bluestem {Andropogon 
furcatus), little bluestem {Andropogon scoparius) , Indian 
grass {Sorghastrum nutans), and switch grass (Panicum 
virgatum). Prairie hay is very nutritious and is valued 
highly, especially for livery horses. The amount of 
prairie hay produced is constantly decreasing as the 
prairie is converted into farms. The region now produc- 
ing prairie hay is the eastern portion of the Great Plains 
from Arkansas and Oklahoma to the Dakotas. 

Much hay is produced in the drier portion of the Great 
Plains from western wheat grass {Agropyron Smithii), a 
harsh erect bluish grass with creeping rootstocks and a 
slender wheat-like head. It grows especially in soil that 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES 1 47 

is slightly alkaline. This grass is sometimes called blue- 
stem and bluejoint but should not be confused with the 
prairie bluestem mentioned above {Andropogon furcatus) , 
nor with the marsh bluejoint mentioned later. 

Marsh hay is produced from areas too moist for field 
crops, and too moist to be classed as prairie. These 
areas are moist meadows rather than marshes. They 
may be fairly dry during a part of the season but some- 
what marshy during the wet season. Hay cannot be 
cut from these areas if the soil is actually marshy during 
the haying season. Marsh hay is produced on a com- 
mercial scale only in the North, from the Dakotas to 
Wisconsin. In some localities flat wooden shoes are 
placed upon the horses' feet to enable them to traverse 
the soft ground. 

Most of the marsh hay is produced from two species 
of grass, marsh bluejoint {Calamagrostis canadensis 
(Michx.) Beauv.) and reed canary grass (Phalaris 
arundinacea L.). 

Salt marsh hay is produced from saline marshes or 
meadows along the Atlantic Coast chiefly from Maine to 
New Jersey. The common marsh grasses of the coast 
are used, consisting especially of the smaller cord grass 
■{Spartina patens (Ait.) Muhl.) and black grass, a kind 
of rush. (Juncus Gerardi Loisel.) The hay is mostly too 
coarse to make good forage but is used extensively for 
packing and for stable bedding. 

CULTIVATING NATIVE GRASSES 

Many experiments have been tried to utilize the native 
grasses as a cultivated crop. The only species that has 



148 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

been introduced into cultivation on a commercial scale 
is slender wheat grass {Agropyron tenerum Vasey). This 
is an erect bunch grass growing throughout the West 
especially in the Northwest. The seed head is slender 
and beardless, resembling a very slender, drawn-out 
wheat head. 

The chief difficulties in the introduction of the wild 
grasses are connected with economic seed production. 
On page 53 are enumerated some of the reasons that 
make timothy an important forage grass. In general 
wild grasses do not conform to the timothy standard. 

Big bluestem is an excellent forage grass and produces 
hay of the best quality, but efforts to introduce it into 
cultivation have not succeeded because the seed is pro- 
duced in small quantity and is not easily handled. 

There is a persistent demand from ranchmen for a 
grass which will produce grazing or hay upon arid or 
semiarid land. This demand, unfortunately, is not 
likely to be gratified. For grazing purposes the native 
grasses are usually producing all the forage possible under 
the prevailing conditions. Through a long series of 
centuries these grasses have adapted themselves to the 
climatic conditions, and are producing a maximum for 
those conditions. In seasons of maximum rainfall they 
yield abundantly; in seasons of minimum rainfall th^ey 
produce sparsely, merely maintaining their existence. 
The perennial grasses, which constitute the bulk of the 
grazing except in certain desert regions (see page 135), 
maintain themselves, but do not spread or occupy new 
soil except under unusually favorable conditions. Under 
natural conditions these grasses depend upon these 



NATIVE FORAGE GRASSES I49 

exceptionally favorable seasons to utilize their seed for 
the production of new growth. Plants introduced from 
foreign countries can do no better. It is an idle quest 
to seek for a grass that can be sown by a man on horse- 
back on a depleted range , to rej uvenate it. The best way 
to rejuvenate a worn-out or overgrazed range is to give it 
a rest, taking off the stock and giving the native grasses a 
chance to recuperate. Astonishingly few grasses have 
been introduced into successful cultivation, and these 
nearly all in humid regions. First there are the Euro- 
pean grasses introduced in earlier times and adapted to 
normal humid agricultural conditions. These are tim- 
othy, redtop, orchard grass, rye grass, bluegrass, the 
various fescue grasses and several others of minor im- 
portance. But as a result of recent experiments and 
active search for grasses by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations, only a 
few species have been proved of value. These are brome 
grass, and slender wheat grass to a limited extent, found 
suited to the northern part of the Great Plains, Sudan 
grass (and other varieties of sorghum, such as Kafir corn 
and milo, see page 126) for the southern part of the same 
region. Natal grass for a limited area in Florida, and 
possibly Rhodes grass and Napier grass for the south- 
west. 

In general, considering the grasses of the world, few 
species meet the qualifications, such as favorable seed 
habits, for successful cultivation. All the grasses now in 
cultivation in the United States (with the single excep- 
tion of slender wheat grass) have been introduced from 



150 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

other countries where they were already in successful 
cultivation.* We have not a single case of a grass from 
another country having been introduced into successful 
cultivation here, that was not already in use in the 
country from which it came. Seed has been gathered all 
over the world from hundreds of wild species and tested 
by our Department of Agriculture and the Experiment 
Stations, but thus far none has been proved to be any 
better adapted to our conditions than those already in 
use. The search is being continued and such species 
may be found but we must not entertain exaggerated 
expectations. Much more success has resulted from a 
study of the species now in cultivation in the various 
countries of the world. By testing these throughout our 
country, additional species, or improved varieties, may 
be found that are adapted to certain conditions or 
regions where now none such are in use. 

* St. Augustine grass and possibly carpet grass are native species 
now cultivated but the seed is not a commercial product, the plants 
being grown from cuttings. 



CHAPTER XI 

OTHER ECONOMIC GRASSES 

Besides the major use of grasses, the production of 
food and of forage, there are several minor uses, the most 
important of which will be considered under the following 
heads: lawns, ornamentals, sandbinders, fiber grasses, 
sugar-producing grasses. 

LAWN GRASSES 

A lawn is a small area of grassland in the vicinity of a 
residence or other building, the grass forming a sod and 
being kept cut short. It is maintained for its own beauty 
or for its value in the composition of a pleasing landscape. 
Larger areas or those not in the vicinity of buildings are 
usually more properly classed with parks. As a rule a 
lawn is composed primarily of grass but under conditions 
not favorable to the growth of grass other plants have 
been utilized. These cases are so few that they need not 
here be considered. 

The chief characteristics of a good lawri are a uniform 
growth of grass of fine texture and pleasing color, forming 
a firm even sod. To secure uniformity of texture and 
color the lawn must consist of a single species. To form 
a firm even sod it is necessary that the grass should 
spread by means of roots tocks or stolons. Fine bunch 
grasses such as the fescue grasses will form a pleasing 
lawn if the conditions of growth are ideal and the planting 
and subsequent care are of the best. But these condi- 

151 



152 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

tions are seldom entirely met, consequently these grasses 
are not often used alone for a lawn. 

The only grasses which perfectly meet the require- 
ments of a lawn are Kentucky bluegrass and the bent 
grasses. The conditions favorable to the growth of the 
former are prevalent over a much wider area, for which 
reason Kentucky bluegrass may be said to be our best 
lawn grass. Bermuda meets all the requirements of a 
lawn grass except that of color. The light green is not 
so pleasing to the eye as the dark green of bluegrass. 
St. Augustine and carpet grass are too coarse for -an 
ideal lawn grass. Rye grass and the fescue grasses do 
not form rootstocks or stolons and hence do not produce 
a firm sod. The former, much used for parks, is rather 
coarse for a lawn. 

Mixtures of grasses are often recommended for lawns. 
The chief objection to mixtures is that the texture and 
color of the lawn are not uniform. The different species 
of grasses (and white clover) differ in color and fineness 
of foliage. If the species were mixed on the lawn with 
perfect uniformity, the lawn itself would appear uni- 
form in texture and color. But in practice this is im- 
possible of accomplishment. The different species 
sooner or later appear as spots or areas and these destroy 
the uniformity. 

On the other hand, mixtures have this important 
advantage, that a more complete and uniform stand of 
grass can be obtained. Each species of the mixture 
thrives on the soil best suited to its growth, hence the 
soil is likely to be more completely covered. Mixtures 
are especially to be recommended for parks and other 



OTHER ECONOMIC GRASSES 1 53 

large areas. Conditions must govern the choice between 
mixtures and single species. If an ideal lawn is desired 
and if it is possible to provide ideal .conditions, then a 
single species should be chosen. The single species to 
be used would depend upon the locality. It would be 
Kentucky bluegrass wherever that species can be suc- 
cessfully grown. It would be Rhode Island bent in the 
North Atlantic States, Bermuda in the South, St. 
Augustine or carpet grass along the coast of the Southern 
States. But if ideal conditions cannot be provided, 
either because of the expense involved or because of the 
natural soil conditions, it is advisable to sow mixtures 
with the hope that the unfavorable conditions may be 
thus partly neutralized. 

The reader is referred to the chapter or paragraph on 
each species of grass for information concerning its use 
as a lawn grass. Under the chapter on bluegrass will be 
found directions for making a lawn. In general it may 
be stated that an ideal lawn requires great care in the 
preparation of the soil. It should be uniform, well- 
drained, and fertile. It should be put in a condition of 
perfect tilth. It often requires a year's preparation to 
place the soil in a perfect state for the reception of the 
seed. If the soil is not naturally fertile it should be 
enriched with barnyard manure, well rolled, and free 
from noxious weeds. An important item also is the use 
of the best grade of seed obtainable (see page 37). 

ORNAMENTALS 

Several species of grasses are used for ornament. A 
few species are grown for the inflorescence which is 



154 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Utilized in making dry bouquets. The chief use, how- 
ever, is as a border plant in gardens or as clusters in 
lawns. In both crises the attractiveness depends more 
on the foliage than on the inflorescence. Many of 
these ornamental grasses have variegated varieties. 
In this chapter will be mentioned only the more common 
grasses grown out of doors in the United States. 

Ribbon Grass. — Gardener's garters. {Phalaris arun- 
dinacea L.) This is probably the most commonly 
grown ornamental grass. It is one of the old-fashioned 
species found especially in old gardens and around old 
homesteads in the northern and eastern states. Ribbon 
grass is a tufted perennial 2 or 3 feet high, the leaves 
striped with white and green. Horticulturally it is 
variety picta L. 

Plume Grass {Miscanihus sinensis Anderss.). — This 
large tufted perennial is grown in the warmer portion 
of the country, forming a large basal cluster 4 to 5 feet 
high. The flower stalk rises a short distance above the 
leaves and bears a fan-shaped inflorescence 6 to 12 inches 
long, consisting of numerous slender woolly, whitish or 
tawny branches. There are varieties with banded leaves 
and with striped leaves. Also known as Eulalia 
japonica Trin. 

Pampas Grass {Cortaderia argenlea (Nees) Stapf). — 
This resembles plume grass in having a large cluster of 
long narrow leaves. The flower stalk rises to a con- 
siderable distance above the leaves, being as much as 
12 feet high, and bears an oblong rather dense very 
woolly, white or pink inflorescence or "plume." The 
plumes are used for interior decorations, for which 



OTHER ECONOMIC GRASSES 1 55 

purpose they are often artificially colored. Pampas 
grass is grown on a commercial scale in southern Cali- 
fornia, the plumes being supplied to the trade. Also 
known as Gynerium argenteum Nees. 

Giant Reed (Arundo Donax L.). — This very large grass 
is grown only in the warmer portions of the United 
States. The stems may grow to the height of lo or 12 
feet or even more. The leaves are broad like those of 
corn, being on the main stems 2 or 3 inches wide and a 
foot or two long. The base is broad and partly clasping 
and at the juncture of the sheath and blade presents a 
lighter colored zone of a somewhat cartilaginous texture. 
The leaves are distributed rather evenly along the stem 
in two distinct rows. The large panicle is a plume a foot 
or two long. 

Fountain Grass {Pe'nnisetum Ruppelii Steud.). — This 
is becoming rather common in the parks of our large 
cities. It is a slender perennial 2 or 3 feet tall, with a 
pink or purple feathery head, 4 to 8 inches long. Foun- 
tain grass is used as a border plant or as a zone around 
the base of a group of larger plants. 

Bamboos. — Bamboos are grown for ornament in the 
parks and residential grounds in California and in the 
East from Florida to Maryland. With their slender 
branches and feathery foliage they form graceful clusters. 
The leaves are broad in proportion to their length and 
are narrowed at the base into a short stalk or petiole. 
The blades are usually not more than 3 to 6 inches long 
and half an inch wide. The species most commonly 
cultivated are Arundinaria japonica Sieb. & Zucc. with 
round (cylindric) branchlets, and species of Phyllo- 



156 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

stachys with the branchlets flattened on one side. The 
bamboos above mentioned form masses with numerous 
slender stems thickly covering the ground and rising to a 
height of 6 to 20 feet. The common bamboo {Bamhos 
Bamhos (L.) Wight; Bamhusa vulgaris Wendl.) is 
grown in southern Florida and southern California. 
The stems of this grow to a height of 50 to 80 feet and 
the base of the stem may be 4 to 6 inches in diameter. 

SAND BINDERS 

The term sand binder is applied particularly to plants 
that are able to hold the surface of drifting sand and are 
used on the bare hills of sand known as shifting or 
moving sand dunes. Such dunes are found in the vicinity 
of sandy seacoasts and great lakes and along our larger 
rivers especially in arid regions. Much has been done 
in Europe to reclaim these barren sand dunes but in this 
country such work has been done on a large scale only 
on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Golden Gate Park, San 
Francisco, and in a few minor localities along the Pacific 
Coast, the Columbia River in eastern Oregon, and the 
shore of Lake Michigan. The only grasses found satis- 
factory for this work are the beach or marram grass 
(Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link) a native of the seacoast 
of Europe and A. hreviligulata Fern, of North America 
from New England to North Carolina and along the 
Great Lakes. To protect an area of drifting sand, 
pieces of beach grass with rootstock attached are planted 
a foot or two apart. Full information on the subject of 
sand binders and reclaiming sand dunes will be found in 
two bulletins from the United States Department of 



OTHER ECONOMIC GRASSES 1 57 

Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, no. 57, entitled, 
Methods Used for Controlling and Reclaiming Sand 
Dunes; and no. 65, entitled, Reclaiming of Cape Cod 
Sand Dunes. 

FIBER GRASSES 

Most of the vegetable fibers are obtained from such 
plants as cotton, flax, hemp, jute, manila hemp, and 
sisal hemp, grasses furnishing but little. The only fiber 
obtained from grasses is esparto or alfa, which is pro- 
duced by two species growing in Spain and North Africa 
{Lygeum Spartum L. and Stipa tenacissima L.). A 
coarse fiber for making scrubbing brushes is obtained 
from the roots of a Mexican grass (Epicampes macroura 
Benth.). Inquiries are sometimes made as to why some 
of our native grasses are not used as a source of fiber. 
Many of our grasses contain fiber of good quality but at 
present the cost of harvesting is so great that they can- 
not compete with the fibers now in use. Some of them 
may be used for paper-making when available in suf- 
ficient quantity and when the demand for paper-making 
material becomes imperative. Crex, advertised as grass 
rugs, is produced from a kind of sedge (Carex species) 
and not from a grass. 

SUGAR-PRODUCING GRASSES 

The sugar supply of the world is produced chiefly from 
two plants, the sugar cane and the sugar beet. A small 
amount is produced from sorghum. Sugar cane is a large 
grass somewhat resembling corn and sorghum. Sugar 
is made from the juice of the stem. The plant is grown 
at low altitudes in all tropical countries where sufficient 



158 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

water is available, either from the rainfall or from irri- 
gation. It is propagated by planting pieces of the stem. 
In the tropics the sugar cane flowers but produces only a 
small quantity of seed. It is from the seed that new 
varieties are originated. The flower head of the sugar 
cane is a huge feathery plume. The botanical name is 
Saccharum officinarum L. Most of the sugar cane in the 
continental United States is grown in Louisiana. Sugar- 
production is a very important industry in the depen- 
dencies of the United States, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto 
Rico, and the Philippines. 

In 1900 Europe produced about 4,000,000 tons of beet 
sugar which was one-third more than the total world 
production of sugar from the cane. The production of 
sugar in Louisiana in 1900 was 132,000 tons as compared 
with 650,000 tons in Java and 440,000 tons in Cuba, two 
important sugar producing countries. 

Sugar is produced also from saccharine varieties of 
sorghum or sorgo (see page 126), but nearly all the 
product is used for syrup. The syrup industry is 
mainly confined in the United States to the region 
from North Carolina to Kansas. 



CHAPTER XII 
WEEDY GRASSES 

Troublesome grasses may be divided into perennials 
and annuals. Perennial grasses do not become aggres- 
sive weeds unless they possess running rootstocks. By 
means of these vegetative organs they spread and main- 
tain themselves. They are difficult to eradicate because 
the rootstocks cannot be completely removed from the 
soil except by persistence and care, and any pieces allowed 
to remain send up new shoots, these forming centers of 
growth for a new attack. 

The three most common and important weedy peren- 
nial roots tock-bearing grasses are Bermuda, Johnson 
grass, and quack grass. The first two are discussed in 
the paragraphs devoted to these as forage grasses 
(Bermuda page 73, Johnson grass page 86). Quack grass 
or couch grass (Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.) is an Old 
World species, now common in the Northeastern States. 
It is an erect grass 2 or 3 feet high with flat leaves 1/4 
to 1/2 inch wide and a narrow head resembling a slender 
head of wheat. The spikelets are more or less bristle- 
pointed (or bearded as it would be called in wheat) . The 
rootstocks are slender and inclined to be yellowish as is 
the base of the stem. The grass is a great pest in 
meadows and fields, but nevertheless can be utilized for 
forage when abundant. 

159 



i6o 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 




ERADICATION OF QUACK GRASS 

On small patches, quack grass can be erad- 
icated by hand, great care being taken to dig 
out all roots and rootstocks. These should be 
entirely removed from the field because 

(if left to lie upon the surface they may 
take root again and become established. 

Eradication from large patches or 
badly infested fields depends on thor- 
ough tillage. The methods employed 
are: dragging the roots to the surface 
where they will be killed by exposure to 
wind and sun; turning the plants un- 
der completely and then preventing 
the young shoots from forming above 
ground. It may be necessary to com- 
bine the two methods. 

It is essential first to plow the infested 
field. The plow should be so adjusted 
that each furrow is completely cut and 
turned, covering up the plants and ex- 
posing the roots. In backfurrowing, 
the second furrow should completely 
turn over the first furrow, that is, no 




35. Quack Grass. A seed head or spike, and a base showing the 
vigorous rootstocks by which the grass spreads. 



WEEDY GRASSES l6l 

sod should be left uncut anywhere. Afterwards it is well 
to disk the field both ways to pack the soil. The plowing 
and disking greatly reduce the vitality of the grass but 
do not entirely destroy it. The complete destruction 
must be done by subsequent tillage through one or more 
years. In order not to lose the use of the land during 
this time it is best to plan a rotation of crops suited to 
the locality. Plowing in August, allowing to lie fallow, 
and plowing again in late fall, greatly facilitates the 
destruction the following year. A smother-crop like 
buckwheat or millet is often efficacious in killing out the 
pest the next season, especially if there has been har- 
rowing or other culture in the spring before these crops 
are planted. If a cultivated crop, such as corn follows 
the plowing, careful tillage with some hand work will 
usually completely eradicate quack grass. 

Nut grass ( Cyperus rotundus) is a sedge and not a true 
grass. It is a common weed of lawns and fields in the 
Cotton Belt. Nut grass has 3-ranked leaves and propa- 
gates by corms or tubers, the so-called nuts. These 
corms are about 1/2 inch long, somewhat ovoid or oblong, 
dark brown, and are connected with the main plants by 
slender rootstocks. The corms may be buried a few 
inches or even as much as a foot. The plant cannot be 
eradicated by cutting off the tops. It is necessary to 
plow up the ground and carefully remove all the corms, 
or the infested portion can be planted to some shading 
crop, such as cowpea, and the nut grass smothered 
out. 



l62 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

ANNUAL WEEDS 

The annual weedy grasses are numerous and often 
troublesome. In general, annual grasses germinate in 
the spring and become prominent in the summer and 
autumn. Some, especially in the warmer parts of the 
country, germinate in the fall, live over winter as small 
tufts, and ripen their seed the following spring. In 
fields annual grasses can usually be kept in subjection 
by the ordinary methods of cultivation. In grain fields, 
meadows and lawns other methods must be used. Clean 
cultivation the preceding year, and the use of clean seed 
will usually prevent the growth of a damaging amount of 
weeds in grain fields. The same is true of meadows and 
pastures but any lack of vigor in the forage grass, due 
to a poor stand or a subsequent dying out, invites the 
encroachment of weeds. A badly infested meadow or 
pasture should be broken up and reseeded. It is a waste 
of time to attempt to coddle such a field into good condi- 
tion. Weedy lawns are discussed in another place (page 
65). The common annual weedy grasses are mentioned 
below. 

Crab grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Dulac and 
sometimes also S. ischaemum (Schreb.) Nash). — Plants 
spreading, in vigorous specimens becoming 3 or 4 feet in 
diameter, some of the parts often showing a purplish 
color, the sheaths covered with spreading hairs, the 
blades flat, rather short, the flower head consisting of 
several slender spikes, 3 to 6 inches long, radiating from 
the top of the stem or from near the top. The spreading 
stems may produce roots from the nodes, the plant 



WEEDY GRASSES 



163 



forming a clinging mat. Crab grass is found throughout 
the Southern States and extends less abundantly into 
many of the Northern States. It is rare in the Western 




36. Crab Grass. The upper part of a flower stem with six 
spikes of flowers. 



States. Crab grass is a good forage plant in the South 
and is not infrequently utilized for hay. The seed is 
not sown but volunteer growth is used. The less com- 
mon Syntherisma ischaemum is distinguished by its 
smooth sheaths. 



l64 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Brome grasses (species of Bromus). — There are several 
species of brome grasses abundantly introduced on the 
Pacific Coast. These germinate in the spring, cover the 
foothills with green and by midsummer ripen their seed, 
and present a desolate waste of brown. These brome 
grasses are distinguished by the several-flowered, usually 
awned spikelets, that at maturity easily break up into 
the separate bristle-pointed florets or fruits. Chess or 
cheat is a kind of brome grass (see page 133). 

Barley grasses (species of Hordeum). — Two annual 
species are common on the Pacific Coast under the same 
conditions that favor the brome grasses. They are low 
bushy-branched plants with close oblong strongly 
bearded heads an inch or two long. One of these species 
( H. Gussoneanum Pari.) has a cylindric head that 'does 
not break up at maturity. The other, more common 
and troublesome {H. mitrinum L.), has a flattish head 
which breaks up at maturity into sharp-pointed joints. 
The long awns or bristles and the joints are strongly 
roughened, making the fruit (or so-called seeds) a great 
nuisance. They work their way into clothing, into wool, 
and still worse into the noses and into the lining of the 
mouths of animals. This species extends into the Great 
Basin where it is a troublesome weed in alfalfa fields. 
It is called foxtail in many parts of the West. 

A perennial species of Hordeum {H. jubatum L.) is 
troublesome in the Rocky Mountain and Great Basin 
regions. This is called squirrel-tail grass and in some 
places foxtail. The species may be distinguished by the 
feathery oblong or cylindric head, turning white at 
maturity, and the numerous very slender wide-spreading 



WEEDY GRASSES 165 

awns or bristles an inch or two long. These heads 
break up and behave in the same manner as barley grass 
described above. Squirrel-tail grass is troublesome in 
alfalfa fields and in irrigated meadows. The pieces of 
the heads with the spreading beards are blown about 
sometimes in great quantities. The species has extended 
eastward and is locally abundant as far east as Illinois. 

Two other species of Hordeum, one annual {H. pusil- 
lum Nutt.) the other perennial {H. nodosum L.), are 
often abundant in open ground, but are not serious 
pests. They have small cylindric heads with short 
upright bristles. The heads break up into joints. 
These species are usually only a few inches to a foot high. 

Foxtail (species of Chaetochloa. See page 122). — The 
two common species in the Northeastern States are green 
foxtail {C. viridis (L.) Scribn.), with a green head 
slightly narrowed above, and yellow foxtail {C. lutescens 
(Weigel) Stuntz, C. glauca of authors) with a somewhat 
long yellow head that is not narrowed above. These 
grasses are often abundant in neglected fields but are 
easily eradicated by culture methods. In the South, 
especially in Florida, there is a perennial species (C 
geniculata (Lam.) Millsp. & Chase) that closely re- 
sembles yellow foxtail. 

Sandbur {Cenchrus pauciflorus Benth.). This well- 
known annual grass is common on sandy soil throughout 
the eastern half of the United States. The prickly burs 
with backwardly roughened spines are very trouble- 
some. In the South a second species (C echinatus L.) 
is common. The burs of this are scarcely so hard as 
those of the other. Both species are also known as bur 
grass. The first has been called C. caroliniana. 



l66 A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 

Species of minor importance. — Several species of 
annual grasses are common throughout many of the 
Eastern States but do not in general become troublesome 
weeds in fields. They are especially found in waste 
places, vacant lots in towns, along roadsides, and in 
neglected spots on farms. Usually they are not very 
difficult to eradicate. Tickle grass {Panicum capillar e 
L.), smooth panicum (P. dichotomiflorum Michx.), barn- 
yard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv.), goose 
grass (Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.), stink grass (Era- 
grostis cilianensis (All.) Link) are examples of this group. 

Wild oats {Avena fatua L.). — This species is especially 
abundant on the Pacific Coast where it frequently ap- 
pears in fallow fields and grain fields after harvest. It is 
also found under the conditions that favor the brome 
grasses. Wild oats closely resemble the cultivated oat 
but differs in having a strong bent awn or bristle on the 
back of each floret and in having the florets covered with 
bronze colored hairs. This is an excellent forage grass 
and is extensively utilized in the production of grain 
hay (see page 23). A second species, A. harhata, is 
becoming common in many places. 

WEEDS UPON THE RANGE 

There are several native species of grass that might be 
considered weeds upon the range but only two kinds are 
worth mentioning here. Both are pests at maturity 
when the seed is being scattered. They are perennials. 

Dog-town grass (species of Aristida, chiefly A. longi- 
seta). — This is common on the Great Plains. It has 
received the name of dog-town grass because it is usually 



WEEDY GRASSES I67 

found around the burrows of prairie dogs. It readily 
occupies any new soil such as fire guard furrows and 
roadsides. Dog-town grass is an erect bunch grass with 
numerous short leaves at the base and a flower stalk a 
few inches to a foot high, bearing rather few spikelets. 
The florets or seed are tipped with three slender spreading 
awns or bristles. When ripe these seeds break away 
and are blown in quantities before the wind. The point 
(base) of the seed is hard and sharp, the three hori- 
zontally spreading bristles are i to 4 inches long. The 
wind blows these seeds point forwards and they stick into 
clothing, and into the coats of animals. 

Wild barley, wild rye (species of Sitanion) . — This is an 
erect tufted perennial usually about a foot high. The 
flower head is close and bristly, somewhat resembling 
barley, rye, and bearded wheat. At maturity the oblong 
head breaks up into joints, each joint bearing a sharp 
point at base and several spreading bristles i to 3 inches 
long. Before breaking up, the head may become de- 
tached from the plant and blow about. The beards or 
bristles are backwardly roughened so that the sections 
penetrate clothing and readily work their way inward. 
These seeds are troublesome and even dangerous to stock 
as they work their way into the mouths, nostrils, and 
eyes of grazing animals. This kind of wild barley is 
found widely distributed west of the looth meridian. 



INDEX 



Where several references are given, principal entries are in heavy- 
face type.] 



Agropyron repens, 159. 

Smithii, 146. 

tenerum, 114, 148. 
Agrostis alba, 80. 

var. vulgaris, 95. 

canina, 95. 

capillaris, 94. 

palustris, 79. 

stolonifera, 95. 

tenuis, 95. 

vulgaris, 95. 
Alfa, 157. 

Alfalfa, statistics of, 6, 8. ^ 
Alopecurus pratensis, 118.' 
Ammophila arenaria, 156. 

breviligulata, 156. 
Anastrophus compressus, 107. 
Andropogon furcatus, 141. 

halepensis, 89. " 

scoparius, 141. 

Sorghum, 129. 

Drummondii, 129. 
exiguus, 131. 
sudanensis, 131. 
Anthoxanthum odoratum, 103. 
Arid region, 15. 
Aristida longiseta, 166, 167. 
Arrhenatherum avenaceus, 100. 

elatius, 100. 

var. bulbosum, 100. 
Artemisia tridentata, 144. 
Arundinaria japonica, 155. 
Arundo Donax, 155. 
Australian brome grass, 107. 
Avena barbata, 133, 166. 

elatior, 100. 

fatua, 133, 166. 
glabrata, 133. 

sativa, 133. 
Axonopus compressus, 107. 



Bahama grass, 75. 
Bamboos, 155, 156. 
Bambos Bambos, 156. 
Bambusa vulgaris, 156. 
Barley grasses as weeds, 164. 
wild, injurious weeds, 144, 

167. 
Barnyard grass, 125, 166. 
Beach grass, 156. 
Bean, velvet, 13. 
Bent, carpet, 92. 

seed of, 93. 
Bent grass, 92. 

for lawns, 152, 153. 

seed of, 93. 

Rhode Island, 92, 93, 94. 
seed of, 93. 

velvet, 93, 95. 
Bermuda grass, 19, 20, 70, 74. 

eradication of, 73. 

giant, 73, 76. 

lawn, for, 72, 152, 153. 

pasture, for, 71. 

planted from cuttings, 72, 

73- 
region, 13. 
weed, as, 159. 
Billion-dollar grass, 125. 
Black grass, 147. 
Bluegrass, 13. 

botanical name of, 70. 
California, 144. 
Canada, 100, loi. 
Canadian, loi. 

English [Canada] loi, [mea- 
dow fescue], 85. 
Kentucky, 19, 58, 68. 
description of, 67. 
lawns, for, 60, 152, 153. 
pasture, for, 59. 



169 



170 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



Bluegrass seed, 40, 66. 
weed, as, 67. 
region of Kentucky, 19. 
Texas, 114. 
Bluejoint, 147. 
marsh, 147. 
Bluestem [western wheat grass], 
147. 
big, 141, 148. 
little, 141. 
Bouteloua gracilis, 138. 
hirsuta, 139. 
oligostachya, 138. 
Brome grass, 14, 89, 90. 

annual weeds, 144, 164. 
Australian, 107. 
description of, 91. 
Hungarian, 91. 
Schrader's, 107. 
seed, 40. 
Bromus inermis, 91. 
secalinus, 134. 
unioloides, 107. 
Broom-corn, 128, 129. 
Buchloe dactyloides, 137. 
Buffalo grass, 136, 137, 138. 
Bulbilis dactyloides, 137. 
Bunch grass, 141, 145. 

mountain, 145. 
Bur grass, 165. 

Calamagrostis canadensis, 147. 

rubescens, 145. 
Canada field pea, 9. 
Canary grass, reed, 147. 
Cane, 14, 127. 
Capriola Dactylon, 76. 
var. maritima, 76. 
Carib grass, 118. 
Carpet bent, 60, 63, 92, 95. 
seed of, 93. 
grass, 105, 106, 150. 
for lawn, 152, 153. 
Cenchrus carolinianus, 165. 
echinatus, 165. 
pauciflorus, 165. 
Census, report of 13th, on grass 

crop, 4. 
Chaetochloa geniculata, 165. 
glauca, 165. 



Chaetochloa italica, 121. 

lutescens, 165. 

viridis, 165. 
Cheat, 133, 164. 
Chess, 133, 134, 164. 
Chloris Gayana, iii. 
Clover, Japan, 13, 20. 

red, 13. 

statistics of, 6, 8. 

white, 13. 
Cock's-foot, 83. 
Cord^grass, 147. 
Corn Belt, 24. 

chicken, 128, 129. 

cut for forage, 9. 

for fodder, 24, 25. 

Indian, 137. 
Cortaderia argentea, 154. 
Cotton Belt, 13. 
Couch grass, 159; [Bermuda], 

75- 
Cowpea, 9, 13. 
Crabgrass, 162, 163. 

weed in lawn, 65. 
Crested dog's tail, 117. 
Crex, 157. 

Crop areas, forage, 12. 
Curly mesquite, 137, 138, 139. 
Cynodon Dactylon, 76. 
Cynosurus cristatus, 117. 
Cyperus rotundus, 161. 

Dactylis glomerata, 83. 

Darnel, 98. 

Deserts, forage plants of, 142, 

143- 
Devil grass, 75. 
Distichlis spicata, 142. 
Dog-town grass, 166. 
Dry farming, 14. 
Durra, 128, 129. 

Echinochloa crusgalli, 125, 166. 

edulis, 125. 
Eleusine indica, 166. 
Epicampes macroura, 157. 
Eragrostis cilianensis, 166. 
Eriochloa subglabra, 118. 
Esparto, 157. 
Euchlaena mexicana, 132. 



INDEX 



171 



Eulalia japonica, 154. 

Fescue grasses, 109. 

hard, no. 

meadow, 83. 

description of, 84. 

mountain, 145. 

sheep's, no. 

slender, no. 

variousTleaved, ill. 
Festuca arizonica, 145. 

capillata, no. 

duriuscula, in. 

elatior, 85. 

heterophylla, in. 

idahoensis, 145. 

ovina, no. 
capillata, no. 
duriuscula, in. 

pratensis, 85. 
var. elatior, 85. 

rubra, in. 

heterophylla, in. 

viridula, 145. . 

Feterita, 128. 
Fiber grasses, 157. 
Flat-stem, 102. 
Fodder, 24. 
Forage crop areas, 12. 

grasses, 10. 
annual, 119. 
native, 135. 

plants, classification of, 10. 

statistics of, 4, 5, 6, 7. 
Fountain grass, 155. 
Fowl meadow grass, 116. 
Foxtail [barley grass], 164. 

grass, 122. 

green, 122, 165. 

meadow, 117. 

yellow, 122, 165. 

Gardener's garters, 154. 
Germinators, how made, 41. 
Glumes, 49. 

Golf courses, grasses for, 92. 
Goose grass, 166. 
Grains, small, 133. 
Grama grass, 137, 138, 139. 
black, 139. 



Grama grass, blue, 139. 
Gramineae, 10. 
Grass, Bahama, 75. 
barley, as weed, 164. 
barnyard, 125, 166. 
beach, 156. 
bent, 92. 

for lawn, 152, 153. 

seed of, 93. 
Bermuda, 19, 20, 70, 74. 

as weed, 159. 

for lawn, 152, 153. . 
billion-dollar, 125. 
black, 147. 
brome, 14, 21, 89, 90. 

annual, as weed, 144, 164. 

Australian, 107. 

description of, 91. 

Hungarian, 91. 

Schrader's, 107. 

seed, 40. 
bufifalo, 136, 137, 138. 
bunch, 141, 135. 

mountain, 145. 
bur, 165. 

canary, reed, 147. 
Carib, 118. 
carpet, 105, 106, 150. 

for lawn, 152, 153. 
cord, 147. 

couch, 159, [Bermuda], 75. 
crab, 162, 163. 

weed in lawn, 65. 
crested dog's tail, 117. 
crop, statistics of, 4. 

value of, 4. 
devil, 75. 
dog-town, 166. 
family, 10, 28. 
fescue, 109. 

flower, description of, 48. 
fountain, 155. 
fowl meadow, 116. 
foxtail, 122. 

green, 122. 

yellow, 122. 
goose, 166. 
grama, 137, 138, 139. 

black, 139. 

blue, 139. 



172 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



Grass, guinea, 107. 

Herd's 28, (red top), 77, 79. 
how distinguished from other 

plants II, 44. 
Hungarian, 122. 

statistics of, 6, 8. 
in rotation, 36. 
Indian, 141. 

couch, 76. 
injurious, 167. 
Johnson, 9, 13, 85, 88, 89. 

description of, 87. 

eradication, 86. 

weed as, 159. 
June, 19. 

leaf, description of, 47. 
marram, 156. 
meadow soft, 104. 
names, Latin, significance of 

and why used, 28. 
Napier, 118, 149. 
Natal, 112, 113. 
native, cultivation of, 147. 
nomenclature of, 27. 
nut, 161. 
oat, bulbous, 99. 

tall, 99, 100. 
orchard, 9, 80, 82. 

description of, 81. 

seed, 40, 81. 
pampas, 154. 
Para, 107, 109. 
pigeon, 122. 
pine, 145. 
plume, 154. 
quack, 159, 160. 

eradication of, 160. 
Randall, 100. 
ray, 98. 

recently introduced, 149. 
rescue, 107, 108. 
Rhodes, iii, 112. 
ribbon, 154. 

rough-stalked meadow, 116. 
rye, 95- 

Australian 98. 

description of, 97. 

English, 95, 96, 97, 98. 

Italian, 95, 96, 97, 98. 
sacred, 75. 



Grass, St. Augustine, 104, 150. 

for lawn, 152, 153. 
St. Lucie, 73. 
salt, 142. 

statistics of, 6, 8. 
scutch, 75. 
seed, 37, 40. 

description of, 50. 

determining purity of, 38. 

sowing, 32. 
short, 137. 

squirrel-tail, 164, 165. 
stink, 166. 
structure of, 44. 
Sudan, 14, 128, 129, 130. 
sugar producing, 157. 
sweet vernal, 102. 
switch, 141. 
tall oat, 99, 100. 
tickle, 166. 
Tunis, 128, 131. 
velvet, 103, 104. 
wheat, slender, 113, 148, 149. 

western 146. 
wild, statistics of, 6, 8. 
wire [Bermuda], 75; [Canada 

bluegrass], 102; [Juncus bal- 

ticus], 140. 
Grazing industry, 135. 
Guinea grass, 107. 
Gynerium argenteum, 155. 

Hay, coarse, 24. 

fresh water marsh, 22. 

grain, 15, 23, 133. 
statistics of, 6, 8. 

legume, 23. 

making, 34. 

marsh, 147. 

prairie, 22. 

salt marsh, 23. 

statistics of, 4, 5, 6, 7. 

wild, 22, 146. 

wild oats as, 133. 
Herd's grass, 28 [redtop] 77, 79. 
Hierba de Don Carlos, 89. 

del prado, 75. 

fina, 75. 
Holcus halepensis, 89, 

lanatus, 104. 



INDEX 



173 



Holcus, Sorghum, 129. 
Drummondii, 129. 
exiguus, 131. 
sudanensis, 131. 
Hordeum, 164. 

Gussoneanum, 164. 
jubatum, 164. 
murinum, 164. 
nodosum, 165. 
pusillum, 165. 
Humid Region, cool, 12. 

warm, 13. 
Hungarian brome grass, 91. 
grass, 122. 

statistics of, 6, 8. 

Indian couch grass, 76. 
grass, 141. 

Japan clover, 13. 

Johnson grass, 9, 13, 85, 88, 89. 

description of, 87. 

eradication of, 86. 

weed, as, 159. 
Juncus Gerardi, 147. 
June grass, 19. 

Kafir, 14, 128, 129. 

Lawn, Bermuda for, 72. 

bluegrass, making, 61. 

carpet grass for, 105. 

grass for, 92, 151. 

grass mixtures, 152. 

preparation of, 92. 

St. Augustine grass for, 105. 

weeds, 65. 
Legumes, li. 
Leguminosae, 10. 
Lemmas, 49. 
Linnaeus, 29. 
Lolium italicum, 98. 

multifiorum, 98. 

perenne, 98. 

var. italicum, 98. 
var. multifiorum, 98. 
Lygeum Spartum, 157. 

Maize, 132. 
Manienie, 76. 



Marram grass, 156. 
Meadow fescue, 83. 
description of, 84. 
seed, 40. 

hay, 26. 

plants, 16. 

soft grass, 104. 
Meadows, 22. 

care of, 34. 

mountain, forage grasses of, 

145- 
Meskit tree, 136. 
Mesquite, 104. 
Millet, 9, 14, 25. 

Aino, 120. 

broom corn, 119, 123, 124. 

Chinese, 119. 

common, 119, 120, 124. 

German, 120, 121. 

Golden Wonder, 120. 

hog, 124. 

Hungarian, 120, 122. 

Japanese barnyard, 119, 124, 
.125. 

Kursk, 120. 

pearl 119, 126. 

proso, 119, 122, 123, 124. 

Siberian, 120. 

statistics of, 6, 8. 

Turkish, 120. 

varieties of, 120. 
Milo, 14, 128, 129. 
Miscanthus sinensis, 154. 

Napier, 118, 149. 
Natal, 112, 113. 
Notholcus lanatus, 104. 
Nut grass, 161. 

Oat grass, bulbous, 99. 

tall, 99, 100. ■ 
wild, as hay, 133, 166. 
Orchard grass, 9, 80, 82. 

description of, 81. 

seed, 40, 81. 
Ornamental grasses, 153. 

Palea, 49. 
Pampas grass, 154. 
Panicum barbinode, 109. 



174 



A MANUAL OF FARM GRASSES 



Panicum capillare, i66. 

Dactylon, 76. 

dichotomiflorum, 166. 

frumentaceum, 125. 

italicum, 121. 

maximum, 107. 

miliaceum, 124. 

molle, 109. 

smooth, 166. 

virgatum, 141. 
Paper - making, grasses for, 

157- 
Para grass, 107, 109. 
Paspalum compressum, 107. 

dilatatum, 114, 115. 
Pasture, 16. 

Bermuda grass for, 71. 

care of, 32. 

carpet grass for, 105. 

permanent, 18, 32. 

plants, 16. 
Pato de gallina, 75. 
Penicillaria spicata, 126. 
Pennisetum americanum, 126. 

glaucum, 126. 

purpureum, 118. 

Ruppelii, 155. 

typhoideum, 126. 
Phalaris arundinacea, 147. 

var. picta, 154. 
Phleum alpinum, 58, 145. 

pratense, 58. 
Phyllostachys, 155. 
Pigeon grass, 122. 
Pine grass, 145. 
Plains, Great, grazing on, 122, 

136. 
Plume grass, 154. 
Poa arachnifera, 116. 

compressa, loi. 

nevadensis, 142. 

palustris, 117. 

pratensis, 70. 

Sandbergii, 144. 

scabrella, 144. 

serotina, 117. 

tri flora, 117. 

trivialis, 1 16. 
Proso, 122, 123, 124. 
Prosopis juliflora, 136. 



Quack grass, 159, 160. 
eradication of, 160. 

Randall grass, 100. 

Range, depleted, rejuvenation 

of, 149. 
Ray grass, 98. 
Redtop 9, 13, 77, 78. 

description of, 79. 

Natal, 112. 

seed 40, 78. 
Reed canary grass, 147. 
Reed, giant, 155. 
Rescue grass, 107, 108. 
Rhizomes, 45. 
Rhode Island bent, 92, 93, 94. 

seed of, 93. 
Rhodes grass, iii, 112. 
Ribbon grass, 154. 
Roots, 45. 
Rootstocks, 45. 
Rotation, grass in, 36. 
Rough stalked meadow grass, 

116. 
Rye grass, 95. 

Australian, 98. 
description of, 97. 
English, 95, 96, 97, 98. 
Italian, 95, 96, 98. 

wild, 167. 

Sacaton, 142. 

Saccharum officinarum, 158. 

Sacred grass, 75. 

Sage bush, 144. 

St. Augustine grass, 104, 150. 

for lawn, 152, 153 
St. Lucie grass, 73. 
Salt grass, 6, 8. 
Sandbinding grasses, 156. 
Sandbur, 165. 
Schrader's brome grass, 107. 

seed, grass, 37, 40. 

to determine purity of, 38. 
Scutch grass, 75. 
Seed testing, 41. 
Semiarid region, 13. 
Setaria italica, 121. 
Silage, 27. 

plants, 16. 



INDEX 



175 



Sitanion, 167. 

Soil, preparation of for meadow, 

30. 
Soiling, 26. 

plants, 16. 
Sorghastrum nutans, 141. 
Sorghum 14, 126, 128, 129, 157, 
158. 

amber, 127. 

cut for forage, 9. 

durra, 128, 129. 

halepense, 89. 

Kafir, 14, 128, 129. 

milo, 14, 128, 129. 

non-saccharine, 128. 

orange, 127. 

saccharine, 127. 

sugar, 127. 
Sorghums, 126. 

key to varieties of, 127. 
Sorgo, 14, 127. 
Sowing grass seed, 31. 
Spartina patens, 147. 
Spikelet, structure of, 48, 49. 
Sporobolus airoides, 141. 

Wrightii, 141. 
Squirrel-tail, 164, 165. 
Stenotaphrum secundatum, 105. 
Stink grass, 166. 
Stipa tenacissima, 157. 
Stolons, 46. 

Sudan grass, 14, 128, 129, 130. 
Sugar cane, 157, 158. 
Sugar-producing grasses, 157. 
Sweet vernal grass, 102. 
Switch grass, 141. 
Syntherisma ischaemum, 162, 
163 



Syntherisma sanguinalis, 162. 

Teosinte, 131, 132. 
Tickle grass, 166. 
Timothy, 53. 

and clover mixed, statistics 
of, 6, 7. 

as meadow grass, 55. 

description of, 57. 

mountain, 145. 

region, 13. 

seed, 40, 57. 

standard hay of market, 26. 

statistics of, 6, 7. 
Tricholaena rosea, 113. 
Tunis grass, 128, 131. 

Velvet bent, 93, 95. 
grass, 103, 104. 

Water grass, 114. 
paspalum, 114. 

Weeds, annual, 162. 

Weeds, grasses as, 159. 

Wheat, Alaska, 2. 
Egyptian, 2. 
grass, slender, 113, 148, 149. 

western, 146. 
mummy, 2. 

Winter rains, region of, 15. 

Wire grass [Bermuda], 75; [Can- 
ada bluegrass], 102; [J uncus 
balticus], 140. 

Yorkshire fog, 104. 

Zea mays, 132. 



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